■y 


M: 


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Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 
Getty  Research  Institute 


https://archive.org/details/introductiontostOObark_0 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO 

THE  STUDY  OF 

TEXTILE  DESIGN 


BY 

ALDRED  F.  BARKER 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Textile  Industries, 
Bradford  Municipal  Technical  College 


WITH  NUMEROUS  ILLUSTRATIONS  AND  DIAGRAMS 


NEW  YORK 

E.  P.  DUTTON  &  Co. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

.  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  .  .  .  .  .  vii 

PREFACE  .......  xi 

INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS  .....  xiii 

1.  SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS  .....  I 

II.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP  FOR  THE  LOOM  AND 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  WEAVING  .  .  .  .  19 

III.  THE  HAND  AND  THE  POWER  LOOM  .  .  .40 

IV.  THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  .  58 

V.  THE  DESIGNING  OF  INTERLACINGS  ON  POINT-PAPER  .  94 

VI.  SATEEN  FIGURES  .  .  .  .  .  130 

VII.  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING  .  .  .  ,146 

VIII.  THE  STRUCTURE  AND  CORRECT  USE  OF  YARNS  .  .  165 

IX.  ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS,  ILLUSTRATED  P,Y  COLOUR 

AND  WEAVE  STYLES  AND  BACKED  AND  DOUBLE¬ 
CLOTH  STRUCTURES  .  .  .  .  .169 

X.  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUSTRE  GOODS  .  -195 

APPENDIX 

ELEMENTARY  YARN  CALCULATIONS  .  .  .  200 

,,  CLOTH  ,,  ...  202 

„  DESIGNING  ,,  ...  204 

ADVANCED  YARN  AND  CLOTH  CALCUL.ATIONS  .  .  207 

[  V] 


INDEX  . 


209 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


LIST  OF  FIGURES 


FIG 

I.  Plain  Weave  in  Plan  and  Section 

PAGE 

5 

I  A.  Stages  in  the  Drawing  of  Sections  and  Flat  Views 

9 

2.  Section  of  Plush  .... 

6 

3.  Flat  Views  of  Gauze  (Reasonable  and  Unreasonable) 

7 

3c.  Stages  in  Drawing  the  Plan  of  Gauze 

1 1 

4.  Warp  and  Weft  :  Threads  and  Picks  . 

12 

5.  The  Use  of  Point-Paper 

13 

6.  Various  Point  or  Design  Papers 

15 

7.  The  Use  of  Point-paper :  Flat  Views  and  Point-paper  Designs 

16 

0 

))  j)  9’ 

9.  The  Repetition  of  Design  in  the  Loom 

99 

18 

22 

10.  Heald-shafts,  forming  a  Shed  for  the  Passage  of  the  Shuttle 

To  face 

11.  The  Production  of  a  Fabric  in  the  Loom  :  Section,  Flat 

View,  etc.  ....... 

22 

24 

12.  A  Heald-shaft  and  a  Mail 

26 

13.  Standard  Sizes  of  Heald  Cords 

To  face 

26 

13A.  Standard  Sizes  of  Mails 

?9 

26 

14.  Hand-loom  showing  Going-part,  etc.  . 

99 

28 

14A.  Hand-loom  Picking  Action 

99 

28 

15.  A  Reed  and  Sleying  .... 

29 

16.  Various  Forms  of  Placing  Yarns  on  the  Market 

To  face 

30 

17.  Bartrees  and  Vertical  Creel  for  Warping 

34 

18.  Warping  with  Semicircular  Creel 

To  face 

34 

19.  Bradford  Warping  Mill 

99 

34 

20.  Scotch  Warping  Mill  .... 

99 

34 

21.  Warpers’  Beam  System  of  Warping  . 

91 

36 

[  vii  ] 


viii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

I'AGE 

2 1  A.  and  2  IB.  Warp  Dressing  ...  To  face  36 

22.  Drawing-in  a  Warp  ....  »  38 

23.  Standard  Sizes  of  Reed  Hooks  ...  38 

24.  Sleying  a  Warp .....  »  38 

25.  Twisting  or  Tying-in  the  Loom  .  .  ,,38 

26.  Hand  Treadle-loom  .  .  .  .  .42 

27.  Bottom-shed  Witch  or  Dobby  Hand-loom  .  .  -44 

28.  Design  and  Pegged  Lags  .  .  .  .  .46 

28A.  Design  and  Pegged  Lags  for  Dobcross  Loom  .  .  47 

29.  Centre-Shed  Witch  or  Dobby  Hand-loom  .  .  .48 

30.  General  View  of  Tappet  Loom  .  .  .  -  So 

31.  Section  of  Tappet  Loom  .  .  .  .  -  Si 

32.  Dobby  Loom,  Under-swung  .  .  .  .  -52 

33.  Letting-off  Motion,  Regulated  by  Warp  Tension  .  .  54 

34.  Jacquard  Loom  .  .  .  .  .  -56 

35.  Graphic  Illustrations  of  Yarn  Counts  .  .  .  .60 

36.  (A  to  F)  Graphic  Illustrations  of  the  Twisting  of  Yarns  .  65 

37.  Graphic  Illustration  of  Changes  in  Areas  and  Diameters  .  70 

38.  Graphic  Illustration  of  the  Counts,  Lengths,  Areas,  and 

Diameters  of  Yarns  .  .  .  .  -72 

39.  The  Angle  of  Curvature  in  a  Plain  Cloth  .  .  -74 

2 

40.  The  Angle  of  Curvature  in  a  — ^  Twill  Cloth  .  .  -74 

41.  A  Weft-Rib  Cloth  :  Plan  and  Section  .  .  .82 

2 

42.  — —  Twill  as  a  Weft-rib  Structure  .  .  .  .84 

43.  Graphic  Illustration  of  the  Calculation  for  the  Weight  of  a 

Warp  .  .  .  .  .  .  .88 

44  and  45.  Graphic  Illustrations  on  Changing  the  Weights  of 

Fabrics  .  .  .  .  .  .  -91 

46.  Illustrations  of  Twisting  and  Twilling  .  .  .  .  loi 

47.  Herring-bone  or  Chevron  Effect  ....  102 

48.  Graphic  Illustration  of  the  Counts  of  Yarns  .  .  .  202 

49.  Plan  and  Section  of  a  Sateen  Cloth  .  .  .  •  nS 

50.  The  Divisions  of  Space  in  Various  Sateen  Orders  .  -137 

51.  The  Influence  of  Lag-Pegging,  Position  and  Working  of  the 

Dobby,  and  the  Draft  on  the  Direction  of  the  Twill  in 
the  Cloth  .  .  .  .  .  .  -151 

52.  Various  Systems  of  Indicating  the  Draft  .  .  .156 

53.  Plan  and  Section  of  Double  Cloth  ....  188 

54.  Graphic  Illustration  of  Casting-out  in  Gears  .  .  .  166 

55.  Illustrating  Right  and  Left  Step  Pattern  Figuring  .  .  175 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


IX 


LIST  OF  PLATES  :  POINT-PAPER  PLANS  AND 
FABRICS 

PLATE  PAGE 

1.  Illustrating  Plain,  Hop-sack,  Twill,  and  Crape  Structures  .  20 

2.  Illustrating  the  Difference  between  Twill,  Warp-rib  and 

Weft-rib  .  .  .  .  .  .  -76 

3.  Illustrating  the  Construction  of  Compound  Twills  ,  .  104 

4.  Illustrating  the  Rearrangement  of  Twills  .  .  .111 

5 A.  Illustrating  the  Construction  of  an  Ordinary  Sateen  Twill  .  128 
5B.  Illustrating  the  Construction  of  an  Upright  Sateen  Twill  .  131 

6.  Illustrating  the  Construction  of  a  Sateen  Check  and  a  Sateen 

Diaper  .......  135 

7.  Illustrating  Colour  and  Weave  Effects .  .  .  .  174 

8.  Illustrating  the  Correct  Tying  of  Backed  or  Double  Cloths  .  186 

9.  Illustrating  Double  Plain  Cloth  Modifications  .  .189 


LIST  OF  POINT-PAPER  DESIGN  SHEETS 


DESIGN 

SHEET  PAGP: 


I.  Standard  Weaves  ..... 

23 

2.  Plain  Weave  Developments  .... 

96 

3.  Simple  Twill  Origination  .... 

99 

4.  The  Repetition  of  Weaves  .... 

103 

5.  Compound  Twills  ..... 

105 

6.  Combination  Twills  ..... 

106 

7.  Crape  Weaves  ...... 

109 

8.  The  Rearrangement  of  Twills  .... 

1 12 

9.  Combinations  and  Permutations 

114 

10.  The  Origination  of  Sateens  .... 

116 

)5  ))  n 

118 

12.  „  „  „  up  to  Sixteen 

120 

13.  The  Origination  of  Regular  and  Irregular  Sateen  Derivatives 

122 

14.  Motive  Weave  Effects  ..... 

125 

15A.  Twill  Rearrangement  .  .  .  .  • 

126 

15B.  „  „ . 

127 

16.  Sateen  Twills  ...... 

129 

17A.  The  Completion  of  Weaves  .... 

132 

I7P>.  ))  ,) 

134 

X 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


DESIGN 

SHEET 


18.  Sateen  Stripes  and  Checks 

19.  Sateen  Diapers  .... 

19A. 

20.  The  Arrangement  of  Figures  in  Sateen  Order 


20A. 

20B. 

20c. 

20D. 

20E. 


21.  Illustrating  Drafting 


2 1  A. 
2  IB. 


2 IC.  ))  ))  .  .  .  . 

22.  Colour  and  Weave  (Analysis)  . 

(Synthesis). 

(Analysis)  . 

(Synthesis)  . 

. 

. 

23.  Double  Cloths  (Synthesis) 

23A.  MM?)  ... 

24.  ,,  ,,  (Analysis) 

24A.  „  „  ... 

24B.  „  ... 

25.  Illustrating  Effective  and  Ineffective  Textile  Design 


22A. 

22B. 

22c. 

22D. 

22E. 


136 

138 

139 

140 

141 
144 

147 

148 

149 
152 
03 
04 
07 

176 

177 

178 
180 

182 

183 

185 

187 

190 

191 

192 

193 


PREFACE 

This  work  includes  within  its  pages  the  information 
which  the  student  of  Textile  Design  should  seek  to 
thoroughly  master  during  the  first  two  years  he  attends 
the  Textile  School.  Some  of  the  information  is  new, 
much  is  in  one  sense  old  ;  but  all  is  placed  before  the 
student  in  such  a  way  that  not  only  is  the  necessary 
knowledge  gained,  but  also  that  mental  capacity  which 
is  absolutely  necessary  if  trade  changes — which  now 
come  upon  us  day  by  day — are  to  be  satisfactorily 
faced  and  made  the  basis  of  success  rather  than  of 
failure. 

A  series  of  examination  papers  of  considerable  educa¬ 
tional  value  is  given  in  the  appendix.  When  the  student 
can  clearly  and  concisely  answer  these  he  will  have  so 
trained  himself  that  this  book  may  be  dispensed  with. 
He  will,  further,  have  laid  a  sound  foundation  upon 
which  to  build  in  the  future,  whatever  may  be  the 
particular  branch  of  the  textile  industries  he  elects  to 
work  in. 

The  author’s  thanks  are  due  to  Messrs.  A.  M.  Bell, 

[  xi  ] 


PREFACE 


xii 

T.  Barrett,  F.  W.  Barwick,  E.  Priestley,  and  several 
others  of  the  staff  and  students  of  the  Textile  Industries 
Department  of  the  Bradford  Municipal  Technical  College 
for  valuable  assistance  in  preparing  the  work  for  the 
press. 

A.  F.  B. 


Bradford  Municipal  Technical  College. 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS 


AND 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  THE  READER 

All  instruction  has  two  values  :* 

1.  As  absolute  knowledge. 

2.  As  discipline. t 

Elementary  and  secondary  education,  although  in  part 
necessarily  concerned  with  absolute  knowledge,  are  princi¬ 
pally  engaged  in  discipline — i.e.,  in  the  right  development 
of  the  individual  and  in  conformation  to  type. 

Technical  education  is  supposed  by  many  to  deal 
simply  with  absolute  knowledge  and  physical  training.  J 

No  greater  fallacy  than  this  can  well  he  imagined. 

If  industries  were  stationary,  and  did  not  develop  or 
evolve,  absolute  knowledge  might  be  the  royal  road  to 
advancement  in  commercial  life,  and  there  would  be  no 
such  thing  as  technical  education  ;  there  would  only  be 
technical  instruction,  which  might  be  defined  as  the  im¬ 
parting  of  the  accumulated  knowledge  respecting  any 
industry.  Such  was  technical  instruction  in  its  early 

*  See  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer’s  work  on  ‘  Education.’ 

t  That  is  true  education  if  the  discipline  results  in  development  on 
all  planes  of  human  activities. 

X  See  Huxley’s  Science  and  Education  Essays, ‘Technical  Education.’ 

[  xiii  ] 


XIV 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS 


stages,  when  thousands  of  students  (stc)  congregated  to 
be  told  secrets  which  would  make  them  into  merchant 
princes.  Now,  there  is  really  a  ‘  slump  ’  simply  because 
technical  instructors  have  told  too  many  of  these  money¬ 
making  secrets  which,  through  their  wholesale  distribu¬ 
tion,  have  become,  as  special  knowledge,  valueless. 

But  this  same  information — rightly  imparted — may  not 
only  in  itself  be  valuable  to  the  student,  but  may  also  be 
made  the  basis  of  a  most  useful  and  truly  educational 
discipline. 

Just  as  the  child  requires  the  absolute  knowledge  of 
the  alphabet  and  of  the  atmosphere  of  humanity,  so  does 
the  youth  require  the  alphabet  of  the  industry  in  which 
he  is  to  work,  and  the  absolute  knowledge — both  mental 
and  physical — upon  which  the  industry,  or  perhaps  his 
own  particular  branch  of  it,  is  based.  But  few  students 
can  gain  this  knowledge — which  will  only  maintain  the 
status  quo — by  being  told  it  ;  each  student  must  acquire  it 
for  himself,  and  its  acquisition  depends  upon  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  the  student’s  own  physical  and  intellectual 
senses.  Now,  the  moment  the  development  of  the  in¬ 
dividual  is  admitted,  the  value  of  discipline — in  contrast 
to  mere  information — of  education  as  distinct  from  mere 
instruction,  must  also  be  admitted. 

The  primary  object  of  this  work  is  to  show  clearly 
how  the  special  knowledge  required  in  the  Textile 
Industries  may  be  co-ordinated  into  a  truly  educational 
discipline— a  discipline  using  the  knowledge  of  value 
for  to-day  in  such  a  way  that  the  student  himself  will 
be  a  better  man  to-morrow. 

When  the  perpetual  development  of  trade  is  realized, 
it  will  be  evident  that,  whilst  absolute  knowledge  is 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS 


XV 


essential,  still  more  is  it  essential  that  the  youth  should 
be  disciplined  in  such  a  .way  that  he  can  face  trade 
changes  with  confidence,  and  push  out  into  unexplored 
fields  of  physical  and  mental  activities  to  the  ultimate 
advantage  of  himself  and  of  his  fellow-men. 

From  another  point  of  view — that  of  commercial  life 
— the  question  of  discipline  is  paramount.  Given  the 
necessary  absolute  knowledge  and  physical  qualifications, 
it  is,  after  aU,  character  which  tells.  Now,  it  is  a  strange 
kind  of  reasoning  which  asserts  that  character  can  be 
better  built  up  by  reading  of  past  heroic  ages,  or  even  of 
past  scientific  achievements,  rather  than  by  a  well- 
regulated  life  in  the  actual  present.  The  few  only  have 
the  gift  of  living  in  the  past,  and  therefrom  drawing 
lessons  for  the  present,  and  it  is  a  deplorable  mistake  to 
base  the  education  of  the  many  on  the  requirements  of 
the  few — almost  as  bad  as  to  base  the  education  of  the 
few  on  the  requirements  of  the  many.*  If  our  technical 
schools  are  organized  as  they  should  be,  they  will  not  be 
mere  emporiums  of  facts,  but  living  centres  of  human 
activities,  stimulating  and  invigorating  the  youths  of 
to-day,  who  wiU  be  the  commercial  leaders  of  to-morrow, 
and  developing  the  faculties  of  accuracy,  reasonableness, 
smartness,  and  application,  which  are  the  pass-words  to 
success. 

To  develop  the  innate  capabilities  of  the  student 
through  the  industry  in  which  he  must  work  should  be 
the  desideratum  of  education  in  industrial  centres,  since 
the  two-fold  advantage  is  obtained  of — 

(a)  The  absolute  knowledge  necessary  for  earning  a 
livelihood  ;  and 

*  Hence,  also,  the  folly  of  endeavouring  to  graft  German  or  American 
educational  methods  on  to  our  English  system,  or  vice  versd. 


XVI 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS 


(b)  The  discipline  which  will  enable  the  student  to 
realize  to  the  full  his  own  innate  capabilities.* 

With  these  points  in  view,  no  apology  is  necessary  from 
the  author  for  writing  this  work  in  terms  of  the  student  and 
not  of  the  industry. 

Many  think  that  industries  are  a  necessary  evil  ;  this 
book  is  written  as  a  protest  against  this  attitude,  in  the 
hope  that  it  may  assist  in  the  development  of  the  textile 
industries  towards  that  state  of  efficiency  in  which  life 
in  these  industries  may  become  a  pleasure  rather  than  a 
burden.  Such  a  state  may  be  far  distant,  but  the  author 
will  feel  that  his  time  in  writing  this  work  has  not  been 
thrown  away  if  it  results  in  those  engaged  in  the  industry 
realizing  the  absorbing  interest  of  many  of  the  problems 
which  must  be  faced. 

In  order  that  the  student  may  spend  his  time  to  the 
best  advantage,  reap  the  greatest  benefit,  and  develop 
a  progressive  interest  in  his  work,  he  is  strongly 
recommended  to  pay  special  attention  to  the  following 
points : 

1.  Read  carefully,  and  be  sure  that  you  understand 
every  word  ;  many  most  important  points  are  hidden 
from  the  casual  reader  which  the  careful  reader  cannot  fail 
to  realize. 

2.  Study  the  diagrams  and  point-paper  plans  very 
carefully  ;  each  one  usually  explains  itself  and  suggests 
much  more  than  is  given  in  the  text. 

3.  Never  accept  a  statement  without  realizing  truly 
what  it  means.  Be  reasonable  in  all  your  work  and 
thoughts. 

*  These  innate  capabilities  being  frequently  evolved  after  college 
life,  the  technical  college  can  do  little  for  him  directly,  but  by  discipline 
it  may  hidirectly  do  much. 


INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS  xvii 

4.  Endeavour  to  work  in  stages  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex.  Difficulties  which  are  apparently  unsur- 
mountable  become  quite  easy  when  approached  by  studies 
running  in  sequence  from  the  simple  to  the  complex. 

5.  Test  yourself  to  insure  accuracy  in  your  work 
by  repeating  designs,  or  in  any  way  which  occurs  to  you  ; 
without  accuracy  you  can  do  nothing. 

6.  In  carrying  out  designs  (after  you  have  carefully 
done  the  scheming)  always  work  at  high  tension  for  a 
short  time  rather  than  slackly  for  a  long  time. 

7.  In  all  designing  arrange  to  work  to  the  greatest 
advantage  and  quickly  ;  if  you  make  two  strokes  at  every 
square  instead  of  one  the  design  will  take  double  the  time 
it  should  take. 

8.  Einally,  remember  that  if  it  is  true  that  ‘  A  bad 
workman  quarrels  with  his  tools,’  it  is  even  truer  that 
^  A  good  workman  employs  good  tools.'' 


AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 

CHAPTER  I 

SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 

IN  the  study  of  textile  fabrics,  as  in  many  other 
studies,  the  first  essential  is  an  all-round  knowledge 
of  the  subject  ;  an  appreciation  of  the  general 
before  proceeding  to  the  particular.  It  cannot  be  denied 
that  the  present-day  tendency  is  to  specialize,  but  this 
really  emphasizes  the  value  of  an  all-round  knowledge  as 
part  of  the  specialist’s  equipment ;  for,  in  order  that  he 
may  work  to  the  greatest  advantage,  he  must  have  some 
knowledge  of  all  the  surrounding  influences  bearing  upon 
his  own  particular  work,  and  he  must  be  able  to  gain  this 
knowledge  with  the  least  possible  expenditure  of  time  and 
energy ;  hence  the  value  of  our  technical  schools  and 
technical  education.  In  these  schools  specially  arranged 
experiences  are  gone  through,  and  these  experiences,  with 
the  experiences  of  practical  commercial  life,  are  integrated 
into  a  science  of  the  textile  industries — i.e.,  the  conserved 
experience  not  merely  stored  up,  but  stored  up  in  a  form 
ready  to  be  used  with  precision. 

The  textile  designer,  then,  should  at  least  have  a  good 
I 


2 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


general  knowledge  of  aU  textile  structures  before  proceed¬ 
ing  to  specialize,  and  he  should  also  be  trained  to  apply 
the  experiences  gained  by  others  to  his  own  particular 
work  and  advantage.  This  aspect  of  the  student’s 
training  will  be  noted  from  time  to  time  in  the  following 
pages  as  opportunity  offers. 

Textile  Fabrics  Generally  Considered 

The  principal  structures  are  the  following  : 

1.  Felt  structures. 

2.  Knitted  structures. 

3.  Woven  structures. 

4.  Lace  structures,  etc.* 

Felt  is  given  first  in  the  above  list,  and  lace  comes  last, 
as  this  is  probably  the  natural  sequence.  One  would 
imagine  that  the  matting  of  wool  fibres  together  would 
be  naturally  suggested  to  the  parents  of  our  race  emerging 
from  the  barbarous  state,  and  that  they  would  endeavour 
to  fashion  some  sort  of  clothing  on  the  lines  thus  sug¬ 
gested. 

To-day  the  felt  industry  is  a  very  large  one,  comprising 
the  making  of  felt  hats,  table-covers,  curtains,  carpets, 

etc.  The  operations  in  making  felt  are  few  and  com- 

\ 

paratively  simple. 

A  wool  with  a  strong  tendency  to  felt  is  fed  into  an 
ordinary  carder,  it  is  taken  out  in  a  broad  semi-trans¬ 
parent  film,  say  80  inches  wide,  then,  by  a  suitable  con¬ 
tinuous  arrangement,  film  is  laid  upon  film  until  a  bed  of 
fibres,  say  20  yards  long,  80  inches  wide,  and  several  inches 

*  Embroideries  and  appliqud  work  come  under  the  heading  Orna¬ 
mentation,  not  Structure. 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


3 


thick — according  to  the  required  thickness  of  the  re¬ 
sultant  felt — is  formed.  This  is  ‘  milled  ’  or  beaten  up, 
and  forms  the  ‘  felt  ’  cloth  or  baize  as  placed  on  the 
market.  Briefly,  it  may  be  defined  as  fibre  structure,  as 
distinct  from  thread  structure,  in  every  other  case. 

Knitted  fabrics  present  greater  variety  than  felts ; 
stockings,  stockinette  coatings,  curtains,  hosiery,  and  a 
great  variety  of  fabrics  for  ladies’  wear  are  produced  on 
this  principle.  In  this  case  the  ordinary  method  of 
knitting  or  crocheting  is  employed — viz.,  the  principle 
of  interlacing  one  thread  with  itself — hence  by  pulling 
at  one  thread  usually  the  whole  structure  may  be  un¬ 
ravelled.  The  knitting-frame  is  usually  circular  in  form, 
and  the  recently  introduced  Millar  loom  is  really  on  the 
knitting  principle  with  two  additional  series  of  threads 
at  right  angles. 

Woven  fabrics  are  by  far  the  most  important  struc¬ 
tures  produced,  including  a  great  variety  of  fabrics  for 
men’s  and  women’s  wear,  in  addition  to  tapestries, 
plushes,  gauzes,  etc.  The  principle  upon  which  they  are 
made  is  very  simple.  The  usual  definition  of  a  woven 
fabric  is  :  Two  series  of  threads  which  cross  one  another  at 
right  angles  and  interlace  with  one  another  according  to  the 
style  of  structure  required.  There  are,  however,  several 
varieties  or  modifications,  such  as  plush  and  gauze, 
which  will  require  special  explanation. 

Again,  lace  structures  are  possibly  the  most  complex  of 
all.  Curtains  and  laces  of  all  descriptions  are  included  in 
this  class.  The  principle  upon  which  these  are  made  is 
somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  knitted  structures,  but  in 
this  case  several  threads  or  series  of  threads  are  employed 
I — 2 


4 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


and  passed  round  one  another  in  a  most  bewildering  way 
to  the  uninitiated.  Needless  to  say,  however,  there  is 
absolute  order  from  beginning  to  end  in  every  machine- 
made  lace  pattern.* 

Having  thus  briefly  stated  the  principles  involved  in 
all  textile  structures,  attention  must  now  be  particularly 
directed  to  the  most  important  class — viz.,  woven  struc¬ 
tures. 

Woven  StrLctures 

These  may  be  conveniently  studied  under  the  following 
heads  if 

1.  Ordinary  woven  structures. 

2.  Plush  structures.  , 

3.  Gauze  and  Lappet  structures. 

Ordinary  woven  structures  fulfil  perfectly  the  definition 
of  a  woven  fabric  previously  given — i.e.,  they  are  formed 
by  two  series  of  threads  crossing  one  another  at  right 
angles  and  interlacing  according  to  requirements.  Some¬ 
times  an  additional  series  of  threads  is  added  to  develop 
a  figure  or  to  add  weight  to  the  structure,  and  sometimes 
two  or  more  structures  are  placed  together — one  on  the 
top  of  the  other — and  are  bound  into  one  firm  and  solid 
cloth ;  but  under  any  circumstances  the  foregoing  defini¬ 
tion  is  practically  true. 

The  simplest  woven  fabric,  ‘  plain  cloth,’  is  represented 
in  Fig. I,  in  which  A  is  termed  the  plan  or  flat  view,  and 
B  the  section. 

*  See  Felkin  on  ‘  Lace,’  and  the  writer’s  work  on  ‘  Embroideries  and 
Embroidery  Machines.’ 

t  If  the  student  has  the  opportunity  he  should  take  a  mixed  bundle 
of  patterns  and  endeavour  to  classify  these  according  to  ‘  material, 

‘  structure  ’  or  ‘  colour.’ 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


5 


FIG.  I. — ILLUSTRATING  FLAIN  CLOTH  IN  PLAN  AND  SECTION 


6 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Plush  structures, 
however,  are  not 
quite  true  to  the 
definition  of  a  woven 
fabric,  since  in  addi¬ 
tion  to  an  ordinary 
foundation  —  say 
plain  cloth  —  there 
is  another  series  of 
threads  which 
stands  up  from  the 
cloth,  and  forms 
what  is  termed  a 
‘pile.’  Fig.  2  repre¬ 
sents  diagrammati- 
caUy  this  style  of  in¬ 
terlacing  in  section 
only,  as  nothing 
could  weU  be  under¬ 
stood  from  a  flat 
view. 

Gauze  structures, 
like  plushes,  do  not 
answer  perfectly  to 
the  definition  of 
woven  fabrics.  In 
this  case  there  is 
usually  a  foundation 
cloth,  as  in  the  case 
of  plushes,  but,  in 
round  one  another  in 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


7 


a  more  or  less  ingenious  way,  according  to  requirements. 
Fig.  3  is  a  flat  view  of  the  simplest  typical  gauze ;  in  this 
case  a  sectional  view  is  of  little  or  no  value.* 


*  The  student  as  an  exercise  may  endeavour  to  sketch  this. 


-ILLUSTRATING  AN  UNREASONABLE  AND  A  REASONABLE  PLAN  OF  GAUZE 


8 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Hints  on  drawing  Flat  Views,  Sections,  etc. 

Before  proceeding  further  the  value  of  making  accurate 
and  reasonable  drawings  such  as  those  given  in  Figs,  i, 
2,  and  3  may  be  further  considered  with  advantage.  In 
Fig.  I,  for  instance,  why  should  the  correct  sectional 
view  be  B  and  not  C  ?* 

In  the  planning  of  this  diagram  proceed  as  indicated 
in  Fig.  lA. 

1.  Rule  in  lines  a  y  at  right  angles  to  one  another  ; 
from  these  two  lines  all  measurements  are  to  be  made. 

2.  Rule  in  line  a  a,  representing  the  centre  of  the  cloth 
in  the  sectional  view,t  and  lines  b  b,  b'  b',  representing 
the  centre  of  the  warp  threads  when  up  and  down  respec¬ 
tively. 

3.  On  lines  b  b  and  b'  b' ,  with  compasses,  describe  the 
sections  of  the  warp  threads  in  the  up  and  down  position 
alternately,  the  centre  of  each  thread  being  distant  from 
the  centre  of  its  neighbour  twice  the  diameter  of  the 
yarn  (half  warp  +  weft  +  half  warp). 

4.  Taking  in  the  compasses  one  and  a  half  times  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn,  describe  from  the  centre  of  each 
warp  thread  (the  centre  of  bending  influence)  the  curve 
representing  the  weft.f 

5.  Extend  the  threads  from  the  section  to  obtain  their 
correct  position  in  the  flat  view. 

*  Sectional  view  C  is  almost  invariably  given  at  one  time  or  another 
by  the  beginner.  Why  is  it  wrong  ? 

f  In  order  that  the  student  may  understand  why  the  flat  view  is 
drawn  from  the  section  and  not  vice  versa,  he  is  referred  to 
Chapter  IV.,  p.  74. 

t  The  student  should  realize  that  in  this  case  the  weft  section  would 
be  drawn  in  just  the  same  manner  as  the  warp  section. 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


H 


t 

4i 


0  ^ 
0  I 


I 


H 


't; 


4! 


-DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRA  I  INI,  IN  SEVEN  STAGES  THE  CORRECT  DRAWING  OP  THE  SECTION  AND  FLAT  VIEW  OF  PLAIN  CLOTH 


10 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


6.  Draw  in  lightly  the  horizontal  threads  (picks)  the 
same  distance  from  each  other  as  the  vertical  threads  are. 

7.  Strongly  demark  the  order  of  interlacing  as  indicated.* 

It  seems  almost  an  absurdity  to  make  seven  stages  in 

the  drawing  of  such  a  simple  diagram  as  Fig.  i,  but  the 
student  must  remember  that  the  right  way  is  always 
the  easiest  way  in  the  end.  Therefore  he  should 
endeavour  to  draw  his  diagrams  rightly — i.e.,  accurately, 
orderly,  and  neatly — and  by  so  doing  he  will  frequently 
come  across  important  points  which  otherwise  would 
escape  his  observation.  In  the  planning  out  of  Fig.  2t 
the  following  order  should  be  adopted  :  base  line,  a  a; 
lines  h  b,  h'  h' ,  defining  the  body  of  the  cloth ;  line  c  c, 
defining  the  height  of  the  pile  ;  hnes  d  d,  indicating  suit¬ 
able  positions  of  the  threads  which  form  part  of  the  ground 
texture  and  firmly  bind  the  pile. 

In  the  planning  out  of  Fig.  3J  the  following  order 
should  be  adopted  :  Rule  in  lightly  a  a,  b  h,  forming  ap¬ 
proximate  squares ;  with  the  point  of  intersection  as  centre 
and  half  the  side  of  the  square  as  radius  draw  in  the 
crossing  threads  c  c,  first  at  the  right  side,  and  then  at 
the  left  side  of  the  stationary  threads  a  a  ;  finally, 
indicate  carefully  the  intersecting  of  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  threads  by  drawing  thicker  lines  over  the  thin 

*  Draw  the  guiding  lines  a,  b,  b\  etc.,  lightly,  and  the  actual  thread 
strongly,  as  indicated,  to  avoid  confusion.  Red  and  black  ink  may 
also  be  employed. 

f  This  figure  is  drawn  distinctly  as  a  diagram  ;  it  exaggerates 
certain  features  present  in  the  actual  structure,  and  for  convenience  is 
drawn  with  straight  instead  of  curved  lines. 

f  Be  careful  that  your  drawing  is  reasonable.  Why  should  certain 
threads  bend  and  others  be  straight  ?  Examine  Fig.  3,  A  and  B, 
carefully,  and  decide  on  the  loom  mounting  to  produce  each  style. 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


II 


guiding  lines.*  Fig.  3c  represents  the  necessary  stages  in 
drawing  this  flat  view. 

The  Use  of  Point-Paper. — As  already  pointed  out, 
woven  fabrics  are  composed  of  two  series  of  threads 


r 

r 

jd 

X 

V 

r 

y 

c 

) 

r 

) 

X 

X 

>1 

K 

x 

V 

r 

y 

c 

) 

c 

J 

X 

IX 

X 

-) 


I 


W)- 


-C-C-C- 

Vi 


FIG.  3c. — DIAGRAM  ILLUSTRATING  IN  FOUR  STAGES  THE  CORRECT  DRAWING  OF  THE 
PLAN  OF  A  GAUZE  STRUCTURE 


usually  intersecting  at  right  angles.  Note  should  now  be 
made  of  the  particular  names  of  these  two  series.  As 
indicated  in  Fig.  4,  the  vertical  threads  (which  are  placed 

*  Always  draw  guiding  lines  //iz'n,  so  that  they  may  be  thickened  as 
required. 


12 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


\l 


in  the  loom,  passing  through  the  heald  shafts)  are  termed 
collectively  the  ‘  warp  ’  or  ‘  chain  ’  ;  individually  they 
are  spoken  of  as  ‘  threads  ‘  or  ‘  ends.’  The  horizontal 

threads  (which  are  in¬ 
tersected  with  the  ver¬ 
tical  threads  by  means 
of  the  shuttle)  are 
termed  collectively  the 
‘  weft  ’  or  ‘  woof  ’ ;  indi¬ 
vidually,  ‘  picks  ’  or 
‘  shoots.’ 

The  possibility  of 
arranging  various  orders 
of  interlacing  of  warp 
and  weft  will  be  ap¬ 
parent  even  to  the 
novice.  Thus  the  need 
for  some  method  of  in¬ 
dicating  in  a  simple 
manner  any  required 
order  of  interlacing, 
and,  further,  of  design¬ 
ing  new  orders  of  inter¬ 
lacing,  will  be  very  ap¬ 
parent.  The  method 
of  drawing  flat  views 
and  sections  for  any  new 
orders  is  far  too  cumbersome  to  be  thought  of  for  a  moment. 

Squared  paper,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  ‘  point-paper,’  or 
‘  design-paper,’  affords  a  convenient  means  of  indicating 
any  required  interfacings  and  also  of  experimenting  for 


Warp  or  Chain.  Individually  ‘Threads’  or 
‘  Ends  ’  (placed  in  the  Loom) 

FIG.  4.  — ILLUSTRATING  THE  COMPOSITION  OF  AN 
ORDINARY  WOVEN  FABRIC 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


13 


novel  effects.  True  that  in  some  cases  it  requires  experience 
to  see  in  the  ‘  mind’s  eye  ’  the  effect  produced  in  the  cloth 
by  any  novel  point-paper  effect,  but  this  applies  equally  to 


FIG.  5. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  REPRESENTATION  OF  PLAIN  CLOTH  ON  POINT-PAPER 

any  system  of  designing,  so  that,  all  things  considered, 
the  ordinary  point-paper  method,  helped  out  occasionally 
by  plans  and  sections,  cannot  be  improved  upon.  Fig.  5 


14 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


clearly  illustrates  this  method.  The  simplest  method, 
and  that  most  usually  employed  by  those  uninitiated  in 
the  art  of  textile  design,  is  indicated  in  Fig.  5,  A,  in  which 
the  warp  and  weft  are  shown  as  lines,  a  cross  being  placed 
where  the  weft  passes  under  the  warp — i.e.,  just  at  the 
intersection.  Now  this  may  be  considered  a  fair  method, 
and  would  do  if  there  were  not  a  better.  There  is  a 
better  method,  however,  which  Fig.  5,  B,  C,  D,  illustrates. 
In  the  ordinary  makes  of  cloths  aU  spaces  between  threads 
and  picks  are  closed  up,  a  solid  firm  fabric  being  produced, 
so  that  Fig.  5,  A,  evidently  does  not  in  any  sense  represent 
the  appearance  of  the  cloth.  On  the  other  hand,  Fig.  5, 
B  and  D,  does  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  surface  appearance  of 
the  resultant  texture,  especially  if  warp  is  white  and  weft 
is  black ;  hence  the  method  indicated  in  Fig.  5,  B  and  D, 
is  now  universally  employed.  In  these  figures  the  warp 
is  supposed  to  be  white  (thus  a  blank  sheet  of  design 
paper  represents  the  warp  in  the  loom),  and  the  weft 
laying  directly  underneath  the  warp  black.  Now,  a 
moment’s  thought  will  make  it  evident  that  the  surface 
of  the  proposed  cloth  may  be  divided  up  into  squares, 
each  square  representing  a  position  where  either  warp  or 
weft  is  on  the  surface  ;  if  warp  the  square  will  appear 
white,  if  weft  the  square  will  be  black.  Hence,  in  the 
following  point-paper  plans  marks  will  he  taken  to  indicate 
weft  coming  over  warp,  unless  marks  are  specially  stated 
to  indicate  warp.  It  will  now  be  evident  that  a  sheet  of 
design-paper  (say  qbx  g6)  must  not  be  looked  at  as  repre¬ 
senting  so  many  small  squares,  but  in  the  first  instance 
as  so  many  vertical  spaces  representing  the  warp  threads, 
while  crossing  these  at  right  angles  are  a  number  of  spaces 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


15 


representing  weft  picks.  At  any  given  point  of  inter¬ 
section  warp  or  weft  may  be  on  the  surface  ;  if  warp  the 
square  is  left  blank — i.e.,  white — if  weft  the  square  is 
marked  black.  The  thicker  black  lines  (noticeable  on 


'f 

n 

S 

TT 

FIG.  6.— ILLUSTRATING  VARIOUS  STYLES  OF  POINT-PAPERS 


ordinary  point-paper)  dividing  the  smaller  squares  up  into 
eights  are  simply  convenient  guiding  lines  either  for  the 
designer  or  the  card-cutter,  as  will  be  explained  later.* * 

*  It  is  a  debatable  point  whether  ten  or  twelve  would  not  be  a 
better  number,  but  eight  is  fixed  by  trade  practice,  save  in  special 
cases. 


i6 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


If  the  student  now  examines  a  few  ordinary  cloths 
which  happen  to  be  at  hand,  he  will  soon  find  that,  while 
the  majoiity  of  cloths  are  built  with  an  equal  number 
of  threads  and  picks  in  the  same  space  (usually  stated  as 


FIG.  7. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  FLAT  VIEWS  OR  PLANS  AND  THE 
POINT-PAPER  DESIGNS 


so  many  per  inch),  yet  many  cloths  are  built  with  a  dif¬ 
ferent  number  of  threads  per  inch  to  picks  per  inch. 
Whatever  this  number  may  be  it  must  be  represented  by 
the  design-paper.  Thus,  if  the  proportion  is,  say,  64 
threads  to  48  picks,  the  design-paper  must  be  ruled  in 


SIMPLE  INTERLACINGS 


17 


this  proportion — i.e.,  with  8  thread  spaces  occupying  the 
same  space  as  6  pick  spaces,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  8  by  6 
design-paper  (see  Figs.  6  and  42,  pp.  15  and  84).  If  this 
proportion  is,  say,  64  threads  to  96  picks,  the  design- 
paper  must  be  ruled  in  this  proportion— f.g.,  with  8  thread 
spaces  occupying  the  same  space  as  12  pick  spaces,  or,  as 
it  is  termed,  8  by  12  design-paper. 

In  Fig.  6  various  styles  of  design-paper  are  shown,  all 
of  which  are  in  constant  use  ;  the  sizes  8  by  4,  8  by  6, 
and  8  by  8  are  the  ones  most  commonly  employed,  as 
cloths  with  threads  and  picks  in  these  proportions  are 
most  usually  required. 

A  few  examples  will  probably  clear  up  any  difficulties 
respecting  the  use  of  point-paper.  In  Fig.  7  (A)  the 
2 

ordinary  — -  twill  structure  is  transferred  from  the  point- 

paper  to  the  flat  view,  and  in  Fig.  7  (B)  the  ^ —  mat  flat 
view  is  transferred  on  to  point-paper. 

In  Fig.  8*  A  is  a  fancy  twill  effect  on  point-paper,  B 
is  the  flat  view  of  the  same,  and  A^  is  a  reconstruction  on 
point-paper  from  the  flat  view  B,  the  threads  being  placed 
in  a  different  order  to  that  which  they  occupied  in  A  ; 
hence  a  new  weave — ‘  the  twilled  mat  ’ — is  produced. 

From  these  few  examples  the  student  will  probably 
be  able  to  draw  flat  views  from  given  point-paper  effects, 
or  vice  versa.  A  series  of  standard  weave  effects  is  given 
on  Design  Sheet  i  (p.  22),  any  of  which  may  be  treated  as 
indicated  in  the  foregoing. 

*  Whether  warp  and  weft  are  actually  white  or  coloured  ;  black  on 
point-paper  represents  weft  coming  over  warp. 


2 


i8 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


FIG.  8. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  REARRANGEMENT  OF  A  TWILL  ;  ALSO  THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF 
PLAN  OR  FLAT  VIEW  OF  FABRIC  TO  POINT-PAPER  PLAN 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP  FOR  THE 
LOOM  AND  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  WEAVING 

IF  the  student  has  carefully  read  the  preceding  chapter, 
and  worked  some  exercises,  he  will  have  attained  to 
a  fair  knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the  simpler 
fabrics.  The  question  now  naturally  arises,  How  may  such 
interlacings  (Figs.  7  and  8,  for  example)  be  produced  in 
quantity  ? 

It  is  probable  that  in  the  remote  past  our  ancestors 
made  fabrics  out  of  the  crude  thread  structures  they 
were  able  to  produce  by  an  equally  crude  method  of 
interlacing,  but  it  is  well  to  realize  that  to-day  perfect 
structures  are  produced  in  quantity  by  mechanical  means. 
It  is  these  mechanical  means  which  must  now  be  carefully 
considered,  but  before  proceeding  to  this  study  the  student 
must  be  impressed  with  the  importance  of  accurate  work 
and  careful  forethought.  If  a  hand-loom  weaver  makes 
a  mistake,  his  error  affects  only  his  own  particular  loom ; 
but  if  the  manager  of  a  large  factory  makes  a  mistake,  it 
may  affect  hundreds  of  his  fellow- workers. 

The  Repetition  of  Design  or  Figure 
It  is  evident  that  in  order  to  make  a  piece  of  cloth  of 
any  size  (say,  according  to  the  interlacing  shown  in  Fig.  i) 

2—2  [  19  ] 


20 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


CL®TH  •  1 


CL?.TH-a 


YVh\n 


H9P5ACK. 


CLFiTH  •  5 


CLSTH-^ 


I'l-ATE  I. — STANDARD  WEAVES 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


21 


more  than  one  repeat  of  the  weave  must  be  given  ;  in 
fact,  in  this  particular  case,  to  produce  a  piece  of  cloth 
say,  30  inches  wide,  about  900  repeats  of  the  weave  would 
be  necessary,  for  in  an  ordinary  fabric  there  will  be,  say, 
60  threads  per  inch,  and — 

60  threads  per  inch  x  30  inches  wide  =1,800  ends 
across  the  piece  ; 

and — 

1,800  ends  in  warp  -f-  2  threads  in  the  repeat  =  goo 
repeats  of  the  weave  (Fig.  i)  across  the  piece. 

If  the  weave  shown  in  Fig.  8  is  employed,  the  number 
of  repeats  will  be  as  follows  ; 

1,800  ends  in  warp  3- 8  ends  in  the  repeat  =  225  re¬ 
peats  of  the  weave  across  the  piece. 

The  same  remarks  apply  to  figured  effects,  for,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  9,  if  an  ordinary  size  of  figure  (say,  4  inches)  is 
required  on  a  cloth  32  inches  wide,  this  figure  must  be 
repeated  eight  times. 

What  must  now  be  considered  is.  How  does  a  loom 
effect  the  required  interlacing  and  at  the  same  time  repeat 
the  pattern  as  often  as  required  to  make  the  cloth  of  the 
desired  width  ? 

The  ‘  Healhs  ’  or  ‘  Heddles  ’ 

The  method  of  effecting  the  interlacing  of  a  set  of 
threads  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  10  and  ii.  In  Fig.  10  the 
dividing  of  the  threads  into  two  sets  to  produce  the  inter¬ 
lacing  shown  in  Fig.  i  is  illustrated,  the  two  heald-shafts 
employed  working  exactly  opposite  to  one  another  for 
consecutive  picks.  In  Fig.  ii  the  threads  are  divided 
into  four  sets,  each  set  working  in  a  different  manner — 


32.  IHCHE9  — 


22 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


i.e.,  being  over  and  under  dif¬ 
ferent  picks  of  weft.  In  order 
that  each  set  of  threads  may 
be  conveniently  worked,  they 
are  passed  through  the  mails, 
these  usually  consisting  of 
pieces  of  metal  stamped  with 
three  holes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  12, 
the  larger.  A,  being  for  the 
thread  to  pass  through  and 
the  smaller,  B,  B,  for  the  cords 
or  ‘  heald-bands,’  which  in  turn 
wrap  round  two  shafts  —  one 
below  and  the  other  above  the 
mails — so  that  the  set  of  threads 
passing  through  the  mails  on 
this  ‘  heald-shaft  ’  towards  the 
cloth  may  be  lifted  or  depressed 
as  desired. 

The  wood  shafts  must  be  suf¬ 
ficiently  strong  to  lift  the  warp 
which  they  have  to  work,  not 
too  thick — or  they  rub  against 
each  other  and  break  down 
the  heald  -  bands  —  and  con¬ 
veniently  longer  than  the  full 
width  of  the  healds.  On  ex¬ 
amining  carefully  Fig.  ii,  the 
method  of  lifting  the  heald- 
shafts  for  producing  the  inter¬ 
lacing  indicated  will  be  fully 
realized,  two  heald-shafts  being 
always  up,  and  as  each  stays 
up  for  two  picks  the  change 


FIG.  lO. — ILLUSTRATING  THF.  ACTION  OF  UFA  I.D-sH  A FTS  IN  FORMING  A  SHED‘ 
FOR  IHF  I-ASSAGE  OF  IHF  SHUI'ILR 


-v. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


23 


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=3  9* 

DGO 


DESIGN  SHEET  I.— STANDARD  WEAVES 


•ILLUSTRATING  THE  RELATIONSHIP  OF  PEGGING-PLAN,  DRAFT,  ACTUAL  FABRIC,  AND  POINT-PAPER  PLAN  AS  PRODUCED  IN  THE  LOOM 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


25 


between  each  pick  wiU  be  one  depressed  to  one  elevated, 
thus  forming  a  different  ‘  shed  ’  or  opening  for  each 
pick.  For  example  : 


For  the  ist  pick,  shafts  i  and  2  are 

depressed,  and  3  and  4  elevated 

„  2nd 

„  2  and  3 

1'> 

„  4  and  I 

„  3rd 

„  3  and  4 

„  ]  and  3 

„  4th 

„  4  and  I 

„  2  and  3 

The  means  of  obtaining  the  repetition  of  the  weave 
effect  will  now  be  clearly  realized,  for  each  heald-shaft 
will  work  the  threads  drawn  onto  it  in  the  same  manner,  and 
as  in  Fig.  ii  there  are  four  heald-shafts,  therefore  every 
hfth  thread  will  be  a  repetition  of  the  first,  the  sixth  of 
the  second,  and  so  on.  To  obtain  the  number  of  repeats 
across  the  piece,  divide  the  number  of  threads  in  the 
warp  by  the  number  of  the  shafts;  thus  1,800  threads  in 
the  warp -i- 4  heald-shafts  =  450  repeats  of  the  pattern, 
or  450  threads — and,  consequently,  mails — on  each  heald- 
shaft.  It  will  thus  be  evident  that  heald-shafts  must 
be  ordered  to  suit  each  particular  cloth,  unless  such  are 
always  in  stock  or  can  be  made  up  from  old  sets.  The 
usual  method  of  doing  this  is  as  follows  : 


Heald  Order  Sheet. 


No.  of  healds  required  ... 
Width  of  healds ... 

Depth  of  healds  ... 

No.  of  healds  per  inch  ... 
*Size  of  string,  quality  ... 
*Size  of  mail 


(Say,  4). 

(Say,  30  inches).  Length  of  shafts 
(say,  36  inches). 

(Say,  14  inches — i.e.,  7  inches  at  top 
and  7  inches  at  bottom). 

(Say,  60,  giving  1,800  in  30  inches). 
(Say,  No.  6  glazed  cotton). 

(Say,  No.  4A). 


*  Cords  of  standard  sizes,  as  kept  by  the  heald-makers,  should 
always  be  ready  to  hand  (see  Figs.  13  and  13A). 


26 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Such  a  form  as  the  foregoing  should  be  printed  and 
always  employed  when  ordering  healds,  so  that  exact 
and  complete  particulars  are  always  given  ;  there  is  then 
no  question  of  forgetting  anything.  The  depth  of  the 
healds  must  be  decided  according  to  the  number  of  healds 
to  be  employed  together,  for  if,  say,  twenty  are  to  be 
used,  the  heald  farthest  from  the  cloth  in  the  loom  must 
be  lifted  higher  and  depressed  lower  than  the  front  heald 


(as  will  be  explained  later) ;  and  there  must  be  a  swfficient 
distance  between  the  mail  and  the  shaft  to  allow  the  threads 
passing  between  the  cords  on  it  (not  through  the  mails 
on  it)  to  work  freely — i.e.,  depth  of  wood-shaft  +  depth 
of  deepest  shed  4- clearance  desired.  Hence  it  is  customary 
to  make  the  healds  for  four  shafts  about  12  inches  deep, 
while  the  healds  for,  say,  thirty-two  shafts  are  made  up 
to  18  inches  deep. 

The  size  of  the  cord  is  usually  decided  by  the  number 


Worsted  tleald  Band, 


3  4  5  6  7  8  0  JO 


CoitOi'i  Hcald  Band. 


i 


2 


3  ^ 


S  V  JO  H 


FIG.  13.  — ILLISTRA  I  ING  THF,  ORGANIZATION  OF  DETAILS  (HEALD-BANDS) 


-  .-v'- 


A 

C 

rl7 

1 

^C3> 

z 

3 

'■30& 

O-Oo 

4 

cc- 

5 

CO 

cir:. 

'T3-> 

oO? 

G 

CO 

-=r/ 

X>» 

1  % 

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5  6 

7  ^ 

f. 

1 

> 

/r 

6 

I 

K' 

P‘, 

W 

p 

•X 

y 

i 

1 

O' 

O' 

i. 

,f 

^  A 

FIG,  13A.— ii.lustratim;  the  organization  of  details  (mails) 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


27 


of  mails  per  inch,  the  more  mails  per  inch  and  the  finer 
the  cord,  otherwise  the  forest  of  cord  through  which  the 
warp  passed  would  most  certainly  damage  it.* 

The  size  of  the  mail  must  be  selected  according  to  the 
yarn  to  be  woven  ;  the  size  should  be  such  that  a  double 
knot  tied  on  the  yarn  will  pass  freely  through.  In  Fig.  13A 
several  varieties  of  mails  are  given,  arranged  as  each 
manufacturer  should  arrange  his  mails — i.e.,  in  a  con¬ 
venient  form  to  order  from. 

The  ‘  Shuttle  ’  and  the  ‘  Reed  ’ 

Having  thoroughly  thought  out  the  action  of  the  heald- 
shafts — how  they  prepare  a  passage  for  the  successive 
picks  thrown  in  by  the  shuttle — the  method  of  inserting 
the  weft  and  of  satisfactorily  laying  the  picks  or  weft 
threads  side  by  side  to  form  a  firm  texture  must  now  be 
considered.  The  shuttle  is  simply  a  case  to  hold  the 
weft  yarn  so  that  it  can  be  passed  between  the  divisions 
of  the  warp — termed  the  ‘  shed  ’ — cleanly  and  without 
damage  either  to  itself  or  the  warp. 

In  the  crudest  form  of  hand-loom— such  as  that  still 
used  by  various  savage  or  semi-barbaric  tribes — the  shuttle 
is  usually  thrown  through  the  shed — i.e.,  between  the  two 
sets  of  warp  threads— by  hand,  and  the  weft  thread  or 
‘  pick,’  which  is  left  in  the  shed,  is  beaten  up  to  the  one 
previously  inserted  by  a  comb.  This  will  answer  fairly  well 
for  narrow  cloths,  but  for  broad  cloths  some  mechanical 
method  of  throwing  the  shuttle  and  of  guiding  it  safely  from 
one  edge  of  the  cloth  to  the  other  is  evidently  desirable. 

*  For  a  similar  reason  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  use  four  shafts 
instead  of  two  shafts  in  weaving  plain  cloth  (Fig.  i). 


28 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Such  a  device  was  introduced  by  Kay  in  the  year  1733, 
the  shuttle  being  thrown  from  its  resting-place  (called  the 
shuttle-box)  at  one  side  of  the  loom  to  a  resting-place 
at  the  other  side  of  the  loom  by  means  of  a  kind  of  ‘  sling  ’ 
consisting  of  a  convenient  handle  attached  to  a  cord, 
which  in  turn,  by  another  cord,  is  attached  to  the  ‘  picker  ’ 
or  part  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  shuttle,  and 
throws  it  across  the  piece  (through  the  shed  formed  by 
the  healds)  to  the  ‘  picker  ’  at  the  opposite  side,  which 
is  usually  drawn  forward  to  meet  the  coming  shuttle, 
bringing  it  slowly  to  rest  (termed  ‘  checking  ’  the  shuttle), 
and  then  in  its  turn  throwing  the  shuttle  back  again 
through  the  succeeding  shed  formed  by  the  healds 
changing  positions  (see  Figs.  14  and  14A). 

Now,  it  will  be  evident  that  there  must  be  something 
to  guide  the  shuttle  as  it  passes  through  the  shed  formed 
by  the  healds,  or  it  might  pass  downwards  or  get  entangled 
in  the  healds  ;  this  control  is  effected  by  the  ‘  shuttle-race  ’ 
and  the  ‘  reed.’  The  reed  takes  the  place  of  the  comb 
previously  mentioned,  and  is  hrmly  swung  in  a  frame¬ 
work  so  that  it  can  be  brought  into  contact  with  the 
cloth  or  pushed  back  towards  the  healds  just  as  required. 
The  reed  fulfils  a  threefold  purpose  :  (i)  It  distributes 
the  threads  evenly  across  the  width  of  the  piece, 
making  a  ‘  level  ’  cloth  ;  (2)  it  serves  as  a  guide,  keeping 
the  shuttle  in  its  right  course  horizontally  ;  (3)  it  serves 
to  beat  up  the  pick  just  inserted  to  those  already  inserted, 
thus  making  a  firm  texture.  In  Fig.  15  the  construction 
of  a  reed  is  clearly  shown  ;  it  varies  from  a  comb  in  being 
double-headed  {i.e.,  not  open  at  one  end),  and,  conse¬ 
quently,  stronger. 


FIG.  I4.-ILLUSTKAI1.\G  1  HE  HAND  LOOM  AND  HAND  LUOM  WEAVING 


FIG.  I4A. — ILLUbTRA'l  ING  HAND  LOOM  WEAVING 


I 


-i  ■ 

. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


29 


In  preparing  to  start  a  loom  after  the  threads  have  been 
passed  through  the  healds,  they  must  be  passed  in  groups 
through  the  spaces  between  the  wires  in  each  reed,  and 
from  thence  to  the  cloth-beam  ;  thus  the  reed  is  usually 
made  to  define  the  ‘  set  ’  (threads  per  inch)  of  a  cloth,  as  it  is 
made  with  a  given  number  of  splits  (spaces)  per  inch.  For 
example,  if  the  reed  has  12  splits  per  inch,  and  the  threads 


FIG.  15.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  A  ‘  REED,’  ALSO  ‘  REEDING  * 


are  put  through  (i.e.,  ‘  sleyed’)  in  groups  of  four,  there  will 
evidently  be  48  threads  per  inch  in  the  resultant  cloth  ; 
this  would  be  written,  12’s  reed  4’s.  If  the  same  reed  is 
employed  sleyed  5’s  it  will  be  12’s  reed  5’s  — 60  threads 
per  inch.  Working  backwards,  a  i6’s  reed  4’s  means 
16  splits  per  inch  with  four  threads  through  each,  giving 
64  threads  per  inch  in  the  resultant  cloth.  The  idea 
of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  15  at  A  and  B. 


30 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


With  every  set  of  healds,  then,  a  reed  must  be  ordered  ; 
the  number  of  threads  per  split  suited  to  the  material 
in  hand  can  only  be  decided  by  experience,  running  from 
one  for  the  best  lustre  goods  up  to  six  and  eight  for  close, 
thick  worsted  coating  and  woollen  warps.  The  depth 
must  be  such  that  a  shed  of  sufficient  size  for  the  shuttle 
to  pass  through  may  be  formed,  and  the  length  as  long  as 
the  loom  will  carry — i.e.,  reaching  from  box  to  box  of 
the  loom.  Like  the  healds,  a  regular  order  form  must  be 
kept  as  follows  ; 


Reed  Order  Sheet. 


No.  of  reeds  required 

Set 

Depth 

Width 


(Say,  6). 

(Say,  12  dents  per  inch). 
(Say,  3^  inches). 

(Say,  48  inches). 


As  a  rule,  the  reed-maker  will  use  the  wire  suited  to 
the  particular  set  required.  The  shallower  the  reed  and 
the  stronger  ;  thus  a  reed  with  60  splits  per  inch  would  be 
made  as  shallow  as  the  shuttle  will  allow  (say,  3  inches). 

The  ‘  shuttle-race  ’  referred  to  is  simply  the  length  of 
smooth  firm  wood  which  forms  an  L  with  the  reed,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  14,  for  the  shuttle  to  run  in.  Thus,  what 
is  termed  the  ‘  going-part  ’  of  a  loom  consists  of  the  frame¬ 
work  in  which  the  reed  is  suitably  swung,  the  reed,  an 
addition  to  the  framework  termed  the  ‘  shuttle-race,’  and 
the  shuttle-boxes  or  ‘clearance’  at  each  end  for  the  shuttle 
or  shuttles  to  rest  in  while  the  reed  is  beating  up  each  pick. 


Preparing  the  Warp 


Attention  must  now  be  directed  to  the  preparation 
of  the  warp  for  the  loom.  Up  to  this  point  it  has  been 
taken  for  granted  fhat  the  warp  is  on  the  beam,  has  been 


ILLUSTHATING  THE  VARIOUS  FORMS  UNDER  WHICH  YARNS  ARE  PLACED  ON  'J 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


31 


passed  through  the  healds  and  the  reed,  and  is  in  a  fit 
state  to  weave  with  ;  but  how  has  it  been  got  into  this 
state  ? 

Yams  are  delivered  to  the  manufacturer  in  eight  forms 
— viz.,  in  the  hank  (A),  on  spools  (B)*,  tubes  (C),  cops  (D), 
double-headed  bobbins  (E),  cheeses  (F),  warp  in  ball  form 
(G),  and  warp  on  the  warp  beam  (H),  as  illustrated  in 
Fig.  16.  In  whatever  condition  it  is  received  (and  it  should 
be  ordered  in  the  most  convenient  form)  it  is  necessary,  if 
for  warp,  to  get  it  into  the  state  shown  in  H — i.e.,  on  to 
the  loom-beam.  This  beam  is  made  a  convenient  length 
to  fit  the  loom  for  which  it  is  intended,  and  in  beaming 
the  warp  on  to  it  three  points  must  be  kept  in  view — viz., 
first,  to  get  the  given  warp  approximately  the  width  of 
the  resultant  cloth  required  (preferably  slightly  wider)  ; 
second,  to  distribute  evenly  the  required  number  of 
threads  the  required  width,  in  order  that  a  level  cloth 
may  be  formed  ;t  third,  to  place  an  absolutely  equal 
tension  on  each  warp-thread  and  to  compress  on  to  the 
beam,  as  it  is  slowly  revolved,  the  required  length  of 
warp  (say,  70  yards  to  make  64  yards  of  cloth,  as  will  be 
considered  later). 

Before  briefly  considering  each  of  the  foregoing, 
attention  may  be  directed  to  another  important  matter, 
often  of  great  importance — viz.,  the  order  in  which  the 
threads  are  wound  on  to  the  beam,  and,  consequently,  the 
order  in  which  they  are  drawn  through  the  healds  and 
passed  through  the  reed  to  effect  the  desired  arrangement 

*  The  question  of  ‘  tare  ’ — i.e.^  the  material  ?tot  yarn — in  this  case 
comes  in  and  causes  much  trouble. 

t  There  must  be  the  requisite  number  of  warp-threads,  of  mails, 
and  of  splits  in  the  reed  in  the  given  width. 


32 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


in  the  resultant  cloth.  Take  a  simple  example  ;  suppose 
a  warp  is  required  coloured  as  follows  : 

Colour  Pattern. 

7  threads  dark 

2  ,,  mid 

7  ,,  dark 

7  mid 

2  „  light 

7  „  mid 

32  threads  in  repeat  of  colour  pattern. 

The  cloth  is  to  be  36  inches  wide,  with  64  threads  per 
inch  {i.e.,  two  repeats  of  the  colour  pattern  per  inch). 
It  will  obviously  not  do  to  beam  the  warp  on  to  the  loom- 
beam  in  any  order ;  rather  must  perfect  order  prevail  at 
the  outset  and  be  maintained  throughout.  This  is 
effected  by  warping  to  pattern,  and  to  effect  this — the 
right  quantities  of  yarn  having  been  ordered — cheeses  or 
cops  of  each  colour  must  be  placed  in  a  suitable  creel 
{i.e.,  a  frame  for  conveniently  holding  bobbins  or  cheeses 
and  taking  a  lease)  in  the  above  order,  and  from  these 
cheeses  or  cops  a  sufficient  length  is  drawn  and  a  sufficient 
number  of  repeats  of  the  pattern  are  laid  side  by  side  to 
make  the  cloth  the  required  width  ;  in  the  above  case 
seventy-two  patterns  would  be  made,  giving  altogether 
2,304  threads  in  the  warp  evenly  distributed  within 
36  inches. 

The  warping  may  be  accomplished  in  three  ways — viz., 
on  the  bartrees  (by  hand),  on  the  cheese  system,  and  on 
the  Scotch  or  the  Bradford  warping  mill. 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


33 


Hand  Warping  on  the  Bartrees 

On  whatever  system  the  warp  is  to  be  made  the  first 
necessity  is  to  suitably  hold  the  yarn,  in  whatever  form 
it  may  be,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  off  as  required  at  an 
even  tension.  A  given  order  of  colouring  may  also  be 
required,  along  with  a  convenient  arrangement  for 
obtaining  an  end-and-end  lease  (see  Fig.  17)  to  retain 
such  order  when  once  attained. 

Creels  for  effecting  this  are  usually  made  in  four  forms 
— viz.,  horizontal,  flat  vertical  (Fig.  17),  V-shaped  vertical 
(Fig.  21),  and  semicircular  vertical  (Fig.  18).  The  hori¬ 
zontal  creel  is  employed  for  cops  and  spools,  in  which  the 
yarn  is  drawn  from  the  apex,  and  the  three  other  forms  for 
cheeses,*  bobbins,  etc.,  which  revolve  on  their  own  axes. 

The  preliminary  step  in  commencing  to  warp  on  the 
bartrees  consists  in  drawing  the  threads  through  the 
guides  on  the  creel  in  the  required  order  and  then  by  hand 
or  by  a  special  ‘  lease-reed  ’  forming  the  end-and-end 
lease.  This  is  transferred  to  the  ‘  bartrees,’  as  shown  in 
Fig.  17,  and  then  the  whole  series  of  threads  is  wrapped 
backwards  and  forwards  and  downwards,  according  to  the 
length  required.  At  the  bottom  the  ‘  foot  lease  ’  is 
formed  by  wrapping  the  whole  series  of  threads  (say, 
32)  over  the  lease-pins  in  one  way  and  back  in  the 
opposite  way,  as  shown,  and  then  up  to  the  end-and- 
end  lease  again,  the  operation  being  repeated  by  a  skilful 
twisting  of  the  series  without  break  until,  say,  2,304  ends 

*  There  is  a  patent  attachment  by  which  the  yarn  may  be  drawn 
from  either  end  of  a  bobbin  or  cheeses  at  an  even  tension  without  the 
cheese  or  bobbin  revolving. 

3 


34 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


are  obtained — i.e.,  thirty-six  times  down  and  up  the 
bartrees.  If  required,  say,  72  yards  long,  and  the  bartrees 
are  6  feet  across,  then  the  warp  will  be  carried  eighteen 
times  backwards  and  forwards  from  side  to  side,  the  slight 
surplus  in  length,  due  to  the  diagonal  direction  in  which 
the  warp  is  carried,  being  allowance  for  twisting  in,  etc. 


Thus  the  making  of  a  warp  is  accomplished—Le.,  a  given 
number  of  threads  of  a  required  length  arranged  in  a  required 
order. 

In  the  woollen  trade  warps  are  dressed  on  to  the  loom 
beam  through  the  foot  lease,  but  in  the  worsted  and  other 
textile  trades  every  thread  is  separated,  the  end-and-end 
lease  being  run  from  beginning  to  end  of  the  warp  as  it 
is  slowly  and  regularly  wound  on  to  the  beam,  as  shown 
in  Figs.  21A  and  21B. 


FIG.  l8.  — CHF.ESE  WAKl'ING  BY  POWER 


3 

-  I 


•4 


FIG.  19.— WAKl’ING  ON  THK  ‘  BRADI'OKD  MII.L 


WAKI'ING  ON  THK 


u- 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


35 


Warping  by  Power 

Warping  by  hand,  save  in  the  case  of  pattern  warps, 
where  colourings  are  complex  and  changes  frequent,  has 
now  been  superseded  by  machines  designed  to  work 
quicker,  and,  generally  speaking,  better  in  every  way. 
In  these  machines  the  warp  is  built  up  in  sections,  say, 
of  4  inches  each,  these  being  combined  to  produce  the 
requisite  width  of  warp — e.g.,  for  a  32-inch  warp,  32-i-4  = 
8  sections.  The  capacity  of  the  creel  is  here  the  limit, 
for  in  this  example  with  60  threads  per  inch,  60x4  =  240 
bobbins  in  the  creel,  and  if  the  creel  is  twofold,  so  that 
as  one  half  is  being  filled  the  other  is  emptied,  a  capacity 
of  480  is  required.  These  sections  are  conveniently  held 
on  either  cheeses  (Fig.  18)  or  a  ‘balloon  ’  (Figs.  19  and  20), 
and  then  wound  on  to  the  warp-beam  at  a  uniform  tension. 
The  ordinary  cheese  system  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  18  with 
a  semicircular  creel.  This  type  of  machine  is  also  made 
as  a  combined  warping,  sizing,  and  drying  machine. 

The  Bradford  warping  mill  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  19, 
in  which  the  sections  are  laid  side  by  side  diagonally 
on  the  vertical  balloon  from  top  to  bottom.  The 
Scotch  warping  mill  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  20,  in  which 
the  sections  are  built  up  side  by  side  on  the  horizontal 
baUoon,  not  diagonally,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Bradford  mill. 

Whichever  arrangement  is  adopted,  means  must  be 
taken  to  insure  uniform  tension  of  the  threads,  a  per¬ 
fectly  defined  order,  the  exact  length  required,  and, 
finally,  the  required  number  of  threads  in  the  necessary 
width.  All  machines  should  be  fitted  with  a  reversing 
motion  to  ‘  piecen-up  ’  {i.e.,  to  tie  up)  the  broken  threads. 

3—2 


36  STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 

To  insure  uniform  tension  on  the  threads  it  is  now  cus¬ 
tomary  for  manufacturers  to  order  their  spinners  to  wind 
a  given  number  of  yards  on  to  each  cheese,  so  that  they 
may  all  run  off  together  at  a  similar  leverage,  at  the  same 
time  avoiding  waste  bits. 

There  is  also  a  system  of  warping  known  as  the  ‘  War¬ 
per’s  Beam  System,’  in  which,  say,  four  beams  are  em¬ 
ployed,  the  500  threads  from  the  creel  run  on  to  each, 
and  then  the  four  combined  thus  :  500x4  =  2,000  ends  in 
the  warp.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  21,  one  beam  here 
being  built  up  which  subsequently  will  be  run  with  several 
more.  This  method  obviously  distributes  any  strip iness 
much  better  than  does  the  Scotch  warping  mill. 

Warp  Sizing 

If  warps  are  strong  enough  to  weave  without  sizing — 
i.e.,  without  the  fibres  glueing  down  and  strengthening — 
so  much  the  better,  for  any  size  applied  must  be  taken 
off  sooner  or  later  in  the  dyeing  and  finishing  operations 
which  are  to  follow.  Many  warps,  however,  will  not  weave 
without  sizing  more  or  less  strongly,  or,  to  put  it  in  another 
way,  they  weave  so  much  better  after  sizing  that  the 
additional  expense  of  sizing  (say  ;J-d.  per  pound)  is  amply 
compensated  for.  The  operation  of  sizing  simply  consists 
of  saturating  the  warp-threads — in  a  state  of  regularity 
and  tension — with  a  solution  of  either  animal  (for  animal 
fibres)  or  vegetable  (for  vegetable  fibres)  size,  and  drying 
them  in  this  state  by  means  of  heat  or  an  air  blast. 

Dressing  and  Beaming 

If  the  warp  is  received  by  the  manufacturer  in  the  warp 
state — having  been  already  made  on  one  or  other  of  the 


WAKPEKS'  P.EAM  ’  SYb.TEM  UP  WARPING  BY  POWER 


l.MFUOVliD  WAKf  DRESSING  AND  UEAMIND  MACH  IN  E  (MADE  EY  D.  SONVDEN  AND  SON: 


‘  ‘  -. 

:’,■  t';. 


■  \ 


••/.,  A' 


/ny.  .,•  •  .•  SiS. 


.... 


nrwt 


ll.LUSTKATING  DRESSlNCi  FROM  TH IC  ‘  I-:N D  AN  U  END  '  LEASE  AFTI  K  DRESSING  I' ROM  1  HE  F(>(JT  LEASE 


-  -  V,' 


i 

1 


i 


m 


.} 


•r-'v 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


37 


systems  noted — all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  sley  the 
warp,  say,  two  in  a  reed,  attach  it  firmly  to  the  warp- 
beam  and  run  first  the  sley  and  then  the  end-and-end 
lease — which  is  always  left  in — from  end  to  end  of  the 
warp  as  it  is  slowly  wound  on  to  the  beam.  The  necessary 
friction  to  compress  the  warp  on  to  the  beam  is  obtained 
by  passing  the  warp  over  and  under  the  pins  or  tension 
rods,  provided  at  A,  Fig.  21A,  according  to  the  tension  re¬ 
quired.  Fig.  21B  shows  the  second  dressing  of  a  warp,  it 
having  been  ‘  raddled  ’  or  dressed  from  the  foot  lease 
first,  and  then  dressed  by  the  end-and-end  lease  to 
obtain  absolutely  perfect  distribution.  A  recent  Ameri¬ 
can  invention  consists  in  applying  a  compressor  directly 
on  to  the  warp-beam,  thus  enabling  20  per  cent,  more 
length  to  be  got  on  for  a  given  diameter. 

Having  beamed  the  warp  satisfactorily  on  to  the  loom- 
beam,  the  question  now  naturally  arises.  How  are  the 
warp-threads  drawn  through  the  mails  in  the  right  order 
and  finally  passed  through  the  reed  ?  These  operations 
are  respectively  termed  ‘  drawing-in  ’  and  ‘  sleying.’ 

Drawing-in  and  Sleying 

To  effect  this  the  first  move  is  to  suitably  fix  up  the 
beam  with  the  warp  on,  so  that  the  threads  hang  con¬ 
veniently  ;  also  the  healds  through  which  the  warp  has 
to  be  drawn,  so  that  a  heald  on  any  required  shaft  may 
be  quickly  selected  and  the  right  thread  drawn  through 
it.  This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  22,  from  which  it  will  be 
evident  that  a  ‘  reacher-in,’  sitting  at  A,  will  be  able  to 
select  the  threads  according  to  pattern,  and  the  ‘  drawer- 


38 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


in,’  sitting  at  B,  may  readily  select  a  mail  on  the  required 
shaft — by  means  of  the  additional  shafts  marked  C, 
and  placed  alternately  or  in  the  most  convenient  order — 
push  his  reed-hook  (Fig.  23)  through  this  mail,  the  reacher- 
in  hooks  on  the  required  thread,  the  hook  is  withdrawn 
rapidly  through  this  mail,  and  thus  the  thread  drawn 
upon  the  heald  as  required.  The  arrangement  of  the 
number  of  shafts,  of  the  order  of  draft,  etc.,  will  be  best 
understood  by  reference  to  Chapter  VII. 

‘  Sleying  ’  follows,  being  effected  by  suitably  fixing  the 
reed  just  under  the  mails  of  the  healds  into  which  the 
warp  has  just  been  drawn,  and  then  dragging  the  threads 
in  groups  of  two,  three,  four,  etc.,  as  already  explained, 
through  the  requisite  split  or  space  in  the  reed.  This  will 
be  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  24. 

The  weaving  overlooker  now  takes  the  warp  in  charge, 
puts  the  beam  into  position,  hangs  the  healds  in  the  neces¬ 
sary  position,  attaches  the  new  warp  protruding  through 
the  reed  to  the  old  warp  already  in  the  loom  (or  a  substi¬ 
tute),  and  then  the  operation  of  weaving  follows. 

If  an  old  set  of  healds  is  to  be  again  employed,  instead 
of  clearing  out  the  old  warp-end  or  ‘  thrum,’  as  it  is  called, 
the  ‘  twister-in  ’  places  the  new  warp  conveniently  in  the 
loom  and  twists  or  ties  the  new  warp  to  the  old.  When 
this  is  completed  he  slowly  draws  the  old  warp  through 
the  healds  and  reed,  which  in  turn  draws  the  new  warp 
after  it,  and  thus  a  great  saving  in  time  is  effected  in 
both  drawing-in  and  sleying  (see  Fig.  25).  Under  any 
circumstances,  however,  not  only  must  there  be  absolute 
coincidence  between  the  warp  on  the  beam,  the  healds, 
and  the  reed,  but  each  thread  must  be  drawn  through  a 


FIG.  22.  —  ‘drawing-in’  THE  WARP 


i 


FIG.  23.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  DETAILS  (hEALD-HOOKs) 


Fie;.  24.  — ‘  REEDING  ’  OR  ‘  SEFYING  ‘  THE  WARP  AFTER  DRAWING‘IN 


FIG.  25,  —  ‘  TWISTIXG-IN  ’  THE  NEW  WAK'l'  TG  THE  OLD  WAUL 


PREPARATION  OF  THE  WARP 


39 


particular  mail  on  a  particular  shaft  ;  thus  absolute 
accuracy  of  arrangement  throughout  is  obtained. 

A  considerable  amount  of  space  has  been  devoted  to 
preparation  for  the  loom  because  this  is  the  basis  of  good 
weaving  ;  but  this  treatment  is  not  by  any  means  of  a 
really  detailed  character,  for  books  might  be  written  on 
this  subject  alone. 


CHAPTER  III 


THE  HAND  AND  THE  POWER  LOOM 

Definition  of  weaving.— The  interlacing 

of  threads,  usually  at  right  angles  to  one 
another,  to  form  a  firm  wearable  texture. 
Definition  of  a  Loom. — A  mechanism,  worked  either 
by  hand  or  power,  which  effects  the  following  prime  or 
necessary  movements  : 

I.  The  lifting  of  the  healds  to  form  a  ‘  shed  ’  or  opening 
for  the  shuttle  to  pass  through. 

2.  The  throwing-in  of  the  weft  by  means  of  the  pickers 
and  the  shuttle. 

3.  The  beating-up  of  the  weft,  left  in  the  shed  by  the 
shuttle,  to  the  cloth  already  formed. 

4  and  5.  The  winding-up  or  ‘  taking-up  ’  of  the  cloth  as 
it  is  woven,  and  the  ‘  letting-off  ’  of  the  warp  as  the  cloth 
is  taken  up. 

6.  Where  several  colours  of  weft  are  required  the 
manipulation  of  the  boxes  to  present  the  right  colour  to 
the  picker  on  a  level  with  the  shuttle-race. 


Parts  of  the  Hand-Loom 
The  parts  of  the  hand-loom  which  effect  the  above- 
mentioned  movements  are  as  follows  : 

[  40  ] 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


41 


1.  The  Healds. — The  making  and  arrangement  of  these 
have  already  been  dealt  with.  They  are  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  feature  in  a  loom,  as  they  control  the  movement  of 
the  warp,  and,  consequently,  the  resultant  style  of  inter¬ 
lacing. 

2.  The  Dobby. — This  is  the  mechanism  which  forms 
the  ‘shed’ — i.e.,  which  actuates  the  healds  in  the  re¬ 
quired  order.  In  the  simplest  form  of  hand-loom,  levers 
and  cordage  take  the  place  of  the  dobby  ;  the  loom  is 
then  termed  a  ‘  treadle-loom.’  If  the  dobby  simply  lifts 
up  the  heald-shafts  {i.e.,  has  no  action  on  those  left  down), 
then  an  ‘  undermotion  ’  is  required  to  hold  down  the 
healds  not  lifted.  The  treadle-loom  and  some  dobbies, 
however,  positively  lift  up  the  healds  to  be  lifted  and 
positively  depress  those  to  be  left  down. 

3.  The  Going  Part. — This  is  the  frame-work  forming 
the  shuttle-race  and  carrying  the  reed  and  shuttle,  or 
shuttles,  as  already  explained.  In  most  hand-looms  it  is 
swung  from  the  top — i.e.,  ‘  over-swung,’  as  shown  in 
Fig.  14  ;  in  most  power-looms  it  is  pivoted  on  or  near  the 
bottom  of  the  loom — i.e.,  ‘  under-swung,’  as  shown  in 
Figs.  30,  32  and  34. 

4.  The  Cloth-Beam  or  Roller. — This  is  suitably  arranged 
to  wind  up  the  cloth  as  woven,  being  usually  driven  from 
the  action  of  the  ‘  going-part  ’  by  one  means  or  another. 

5.  The  Warp-Beam. — This  is  suitably  fixed  at  the  back 
of  the  loom,  and,  as  a  rule,  is  ‘  braked  ’  by  the  friction  of 
a  rope  or  chain  on  one  end  of  the  beam  or  on  a  specially 
made  ‘  collar,’  so  that  the  winding-up  of  the  cloth  draws 
off  the  required  length  of  warp,  at  the  same  time  maintain¬ 
ing  a  regular  tension. 


42 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


The  foregoing  are  the  general  outlines  applying,  practi¬ 
cally,  to  all  looms  ;  attention  must  now  be  directed  to 


pn;.  26. — 11112  AUKANGLMENT  OK  LEVERS  AND  CORDS  FOR  WEAVING  ON  THE  TREADLE* 
LOOM.  (From  the  work  of  ISI.  Edouard  Gand) 


several  types  of  hand-looms,  power-looms,  and  figuring- 
looms  (hand  or  power),  known  as  Jacquards. 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


43 


The  Treadle  Hand-Loom 
The  oldest  and  simplest  form  of  hand-loom  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  26,  in  which  the  idea  is  to  actuate  the  healds  from 
a  set  of  treadles  which  may  be  pushed  down  by  the 
weaver’s  feet  according  to  requirements.  The  main  parts 
are  the  jack-levers  (F),  from  which  the  healds  are  swung  ; 
the  streamer  rods  or  cords  (E),  connecting  the  jack-levers 
to  the  long  lames  or  shafts  (P^)  ;  the  short  lames  or 
shafts  (P^),  which  are  attached  to  the  lower  parts  of  the 
healds ;  and,  finally,  the  treadles  (A^,  A'’),  upon  which  the 
weaver’s  feet  play,  each  of  which  must  he  attached  to  all  the 
healds  by  either  short  lames  or  long  lames  ;  if  a  short  lame 
the  heald-shaft  is  depressed,  if  a  long  lame  the  heald-shaft 
is  elevated.  The  shed  is  thus  formed  on  the  centre-close- 
shed  principle,  single  lift. 

As  each  treadle  acts  in  one  way  or  the  other  on  every 
heald,  it  will  be  evident  that  by  tying  up  each  treadle  to 
long  and  short  lames  as  required  any  given  pick  or  lift  of 
the  healds  can  be  effected.  Thus  a  treadle  represents  a 
pick,  and  designing  on  this  loom  is  effected  by  tying  up  a 
treadle  to  form  each  particular  shed  or  pick,  and  then  treading 
these  treadles  in  the  right  order. 

It  is  obviously  very  inconvenient  to  have  to  re-tie 
the  treadles  for  new  plans,  hence  the  witch — a  machine 
invented  much  later  than  the  treadle-loom — is  almost 
universally  employed  for  pattern  work.  It  is  arranged 
in  two  forms,  which  must  now  be  briefly  considered. 

THE  BOTTOM-SHED  WITCH  OR  DOBBY 
This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  27.  The  main  idea  is  to 
actuate  a  greater  number  of  shafts  more  easily  than  is 


44 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


possible  on  the  treadle-loom,  and  also  to  change  the  order 
of  lifting  (i.e.,  the  interlacing  of  the  threads)  more  readily. 
The  machine  may  be  studied  in  three  parts — viz.  : 

I.  The  Swinging  of  the  Healds. — Each  heald  is  con¬ 
veniently  swung  from  a  hook  or  upright,  which  forms  a 
means  of  lifting  the  heald  when  required.  Weights  or 
springs  suitably  applied  depress  the  healds. 


2.  The  Motive  Power. — This  is  produced  by  the  weaver 
actuating  the  treadle,  which  in  turn  actuates  a  knife  over 
which  are  suitably  placed  the  hooks  or  uprights,  upon 
which  the  healds  are  swung. 

3.  The  Selecting  Mechanism. — This  is  a  simple  arrange¬ 
ment  for  selecting  the  healds  which  are  to  be  lifted  by  the 
knife.  It  consists  of  an  eight-sided  wood  cylinder  which 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


45 


suitably  presents  long  strips  of  wood,  termed  ‘  lags,’  in 
which  pegs  are  driven  (according  to  pattern)  to  tlie 
springs  (C).  These  springs  keep  the  uprights  off  the  knife, 
but  upon  a  peg  pressing  against  one  of  these  springs  the 
upright  is  pushed  over  the  knife,  and  thus  the  heald  is 
lifted  as  the  knife  is  lifted  from  the  treadle  pressed  by  the 
weaver’s  foot.  To  produce  any  required  pattern  on  this 
loom,  then,  a  set  of  lags  are  taken,  and  for  every  pick  in 
the  design  a  lag  is  taken  and  pegs  inserted  opposite  the 
healds  required  to  be  lifted  ;  thus  pegs  =  warp  up,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  28,  in  which  A  is  the  design  and  B  the  pegged 
lags.  Of  course,  there  must  be  perfect  coincidence  in  pitch 
between  the  holes  in  the  lags  and  the  springs  and  uprights 
in  the  dobby.  The  lifting  of  the  knife  turns  the  cylinder, 
and  thus  presents  a  new  lag  to  the  springs  and  uprights. 

THE  CENTRE-SHED  WITCH  OR  DOBBY 

This  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  29.  In  the  main  it  is  identical 
with  Fig.  27,  but  if  a  heald-shaft  is  not  lifted  up  it  is 
drawn  down.  Instead  of  weights  or  springs  for  the  under¬ 
motion,  a  positive  action  in  the  shape  of  levers  is  employed, 
from  which  cords  {i)  go  to  each  succeeding  upright  (6^). 

This  upright  is  linked  to  the  lifting  upright  of  the  same 
heald,  so  that  as  a  peg  pushes  upright  {b)  on  to  the  knife 
it  pushes  off  the  knife,  while  if  there  is  no  peg  upright 
¥  is  drawn  over  the  knife  by  the  spring,  and  upon  the 
knife  being  lifted  the  corresponding  heald  is  drawn  down. 
The  knife  is  double-edged,  so  that  hooks  in  either  of  the 
two  rows  of  uprights  may  be  lifted  as  required.  In  every 
pick  some  healds  wiU  be  lifted  and  some  depressed,  and 
as  those  uprights  which  are  lifted — whether  lifting  or 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


FIG.  28, — THE  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  POINT-PAPER  DESIGN  AND  PLAN  AS  PEGGED  ON  A  SET 
OF  HATTF.RSLEY  LAGS 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


47 


FIG.  28a.— THE  kELATIONSHIP  OF  POINT-PAPER  DESIGN  AND  PLAN  AS  CONSTRUCTED 
ON  A  SET  OF  HUTCHINSON  AND  HOLLINCWORTH’S  BOWLS  AND  BUSHES 


48 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


depressing  uprights — depress  those  which  are  not  lifted 
it  is  necessary  to  swing  the  base  board,  upon  wliich  all 


the  uprights  in  the  down  position  rest,  with  springs,  so 
that  it  may  be  drawn  down. 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


49 


The  picking,  taking-up,  letting-off,  and  boxing  actions 
will  be  best  understood  when  considered  with  reference 
to  the  power-loom. 


The  Power-Loom 

There  are  three  great  types  of  power-loom — viz.,  the 
Tappet  loom  (Figs.  30  and  31),  the  Dobby  loom  (Fig.  32), 
and  the  Jacquard  loom  (Fig.  34). 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  Tappet  loom  is  its  quick 
and  regular  action,  enabling  cloth  to  be  quickly  woven 
and  at  the  same  time  giving  the  overlooker  complete  con¬ 
trol  over  the  action  of  the  warp,  and  consequently  a  better 
chance  of  making  a  more  satisfactory  cloth  than  in  the 
case  of  either  the  Dobby  or  Jacquard  loom.  Its  chief, 
disadvantage  is  its  very  limited  capacity  for  weave  effect 
about  twelve  shafts  being  the  greatest  practical  number. 
A  sectional  view  of  a  tappet  shedding  motion  is  given  in 
Fig.  31,  from  which  the  action  in  a  general  way  will  be 
understood. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  dobby  is  its  greater  capacity, 
working  up  to  thirty-six  or  forty-eight  shafts,  and  the 
readiness  with  which  the  pattern  may  be  changed. 
Wooden  lags  and  pegs  are  frequently  employed,  but 
spindles,  bowls,  and  bushes  (Fig.  28A)  are  more  certain. 
In  other  respects  the  action  of  the  tappet  loom  is  copied 
as  closely  as  possible,  since  it  cannot  be  improved  upon. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  Jacquard  is  its  greater 
figuring  capacity,  working  in  its  simplest  form  about 
100  different  orders  of  threads  (healds  or  neck-bands),  and 
in  its  more  complex  form  up  to  1,800  different  orders  of 
threads.  Thus,  if  a  warp  -contains  1,800  ends,  every  end 
4 


50 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


may  be  worked  independently.  Taking  an  ordinary 
400  Jacquard,  which  is  usually  cast  down  to  384  uprights 


(or  orders  of  threads,  or  neck-bands,  or  shafts),  weaves 
on  the  following  numbers  of  threads  may  be  woven 


Fir..  30. — THE  ORUiNARV  I'l.AiN  OH  TAi’i'FT  LOOM.  (.Vs  made  by  Messrs.  Geo.  Hodgson,  I.td.) 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


51 


without  changing  the  loom  in  the  least,  fresh  cards  (or 
lags)  only  being  required;  384  includes  2,  3,  4,  6,  8,  12. 
16,  24,  32,  48,  64,  96,  128,  and  192. 

If  a  600  Jacquard  engine  is  employed,  an  even  greater 


FIG.  31.— SECTION  OF  TAPPET  LOOM 

variety  of  weaves  may  be  woven  without  any  rearrange 
ment. 

The  most  common  sizes  of  Jacquards  are  as  follows  : 
192  and  384  Jacquards  for  Huddersfield,  Leeds, 
Manchester  and  Macclesfield. 

300  and  600  Jacquards  for  Bradford. 

1,800  Jacquards  for  Belfast. 

4—2 


52 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


The  Picking  and  Boxing  Motions. — The  arrangements 
made  for  picking  and  boxing  in  the  power-loom  {i.e., 
changing  the  shuttles)  may  be  summed  up  very  briefly. 
The  pickers  at  each  end  of  the  loom  always  move  in  the 


FIG.  32. — DoBiiY  LOOM.  (.4s  made  by  D.  Sowdeii  and  Sons) 


same  plane,  and  in  a  plain  loom  throw  one  shuttle  alter¬ 
nately  from  side  to  side. 

If  boxes  are  applied,  these  simply  present  the  required 
shuttle  in  the  ‘  picking  plane  ’ ;  hence  it  is  picked  across. 
If  there  are  boxes  at  one  end  only,  unless  special 


-•i 


I 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


53 


arrangements  are  made,  no  single*  or  odd  number  of  picks 
can  he  inserted,  as  the  shuttle  must  always  travel  to  the 
single  box  side  and  hack  again  before  any  change  can  be 
made ;  hence  picking  is  alternately  first  from  one  side 
and  then  the  other. 

In  looms  with  boxes  (say,  four  at  each  side),  not  only 
must  there  be  an  automatic  control  for  the  boxes,  but  also 
for  the  picking,  as  it  may  be  necessary  to  pick  two,  three, 
or  four  times  from  each  side.  With  four  boxes  at  each 
side,  four  shuttles,  as  a  rule,  are  employed,  but  it  is  possible 
to  employ  seven. 

Boxes  are  made  in  two  forms — viz.,  circular  (usually 
six  to  the  round)  and  rising  boxes.  The  former  are  em¬ 
ployed  for  light  work,  in  which  fine  yarn  may  be  wound 
on  to  a  smallish  spool  fitting  a  small  shuttle ;  and  the 
latter  for  heavy  yarns,  which  require  a  large  bobbin 
shuttle  in  order  to  keep  the  loom  running  for  a  fair  time 
without  the  necessity  of  changing  the  spool. 

The  Beating-up  Mechanism. — This  is  effected  by  the 
‘  going  part  ’  carrying  the  reed,  etc.  The  simplest  method 
of  driving  the  going  part  is  from  two  bends  or  ‘  cranks  ’ 
on  the  main  shaft  of  the  loom  ;  hence  the  term  ‘  crank¬ 
shaft.’  When  the  action  of  the  going  part  in  beating-up 
is  considered,  it  will  be  obvious  that  this  crank  method, 
when  possible,  is  by  far  the  best ;  for  the  reed  in  an  ordi¬ 
nary  Bradford  loom  may  deliver,  say,  200  strokes  per 
minute  hour  by  hour,  day  by  day,  month  by  month,  and 

*  Single  picks  may  be  inserted  by  throwing  the  shuttle  in  either  its 
1st  or  2nd  pick  over  or  under  the  entire  warp.  But  it  does  not  follow 
that  one  pick  of  the  material  must  be  wasted,  although  the  time 
certainly  is.  The  student  should  think  this  out  and  draw  diagram¬ 
matic  illustrations. 


1 


FIG.  33.  ILLUSTRATING  THE  REGULATIVE  ACTIO.V  OF  THE  WARE  TENSION  ON  THE  LETTING-OFF  FROM  THE  WARP-BEAM 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


55 


year  by  year.  It  is  evidently  necessary  to  drive  in  such  a 
way  that  slipping  is  absolutely  impossible. 

Taking -up  and  Letting-off. — -These  are  important 
motions,  as  not  only  do  they  regulate  the  thickness  of  the 
cloth  by  controlling  the  picks  per  inch,  but  upon  their 
regular  action  the  regularity  of  the  cloth  depends.  As 
a  rule,  these  two  motions  are  worked  together,  the  taking- 
up  effecting  the  letting-off.  This  is  not  always  so,  how¬ 
ever;  hence  we  find  positive  and  non-positive  (or  negative) 
systems  of  both  taking-up  and  letting-off. 

In  practically  every  power-loom  the  action  of  the 
going  part  gives  motion  to  a  train  of  wheels  which  in 
turn  drives  the  piece-beam  (winding  up  the  cloth)  by 
friction  (not  directly,  or  else,  as  the  beam  gained  layer 
upon  layer  of  cloth,  fewer  picks  would  be  put  in).  By 
a  ‘  change-wheel  ’  the  picks  per  inch  may  be  regulated. 

In  the  ‘  positive  letting-off  motion  ’  the  warp-beam  is 
driven  positively  from  either  the  going  part  or  from  a 
tappet  on  the  crank  or  low  shaft.  But  as  the  warp-beam 
decreases  in  size  less  and  less  length  would  be  let  off.  To 
compensate  for  this  the  tension  of  the  warp  (as  shown  in 
Fig.  33)  regulates  the  positive  driving  motion.  So  long 
as  the  required  tension  of  the  warp  is  maintained,  giving 
the  required  picks  per  inch  owing  to  the  regular  action 
of  the  positive  taking-up  motion,  the  warp-beam  is  slowly 
rotated;  should  the  tension  be  too  great  {i.e.,  does  the 
taking-up  motion  require  more  warp),  it  keeps  the  positive 
motion  closer  in  gear  and  thus  lets  off  more  warp ;  should 
the  warp  be  too  slack,  the  letting-off  stops  until  the  normal 
tension  is  again  attained.  It  should  be  noted  that  the 
action  of  the  mechanism  is  really  most  fine,  so  that. 


56 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


1 


i 


FIG, 


34. — JACQUAKD  LOOM 


HAND  AND  POWER  LOOMS 


57 


although  it  is  continually  readjusting  itself,  a  cloth  which 
would  take  loo  picks  per  inch  may  be  woven  with  50 
picks  per  inch  and  yet  show  no  weft-bars. 

The  non-positive  letting-off  motion  simply  consists 
of  a  friction  motion  (there  are  several  forms)  applied  to 
‘  brake  ’  the  warp-beam  so  that  the  positive  taking-up 
motion  draws  off  just  the  warp  required,  and  maintains 
a  suitable  tension.  There  are  other  forms  of  positive 
and  non-positive  combinations,  which  need  not  be  con¬ 
sidered  here. 

There  are  several  accessory  motions  which  there  is  not 
space  here  to  deal  with,  as  they  have  no  material  influence 
on  the  designing  of  textile  fabrics. 

The  Jacquard  loom  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  34,  but  its 
consideration  in  detail  must  be  reserved  for  a  future 
treatise,  as  only  the  elements  of  designing  are  here  dealt 
with. 

The  foregoing  particulars  are  all  that  a  young  designer 
need  really  be  acquainted  with  ;  when  the  principles  of 
designing  have  been  thoroughly  grasped,  then  a  detailed 
study  of  the  loom  in  its  multifarious  forms  is  most  de¬ 
sirable. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SCIENCE  AND  ART  OF  CLOTH 
CONSTRUCTION 


IF  an  engineer  were  about  to  build  a  Forth  Bridge  or 
an  Eiffel  Tower  he  would  naturally  consider — 

I.  The  materials  to  be  employed. 

2.  The  conditions  under  which  the  materials  could 
be  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage. 

Similarly  with  the  textile  designer  ;  he  should 
thoroughly  understand,  firstly,  what  his  materials  are, 
their  properties  and  possibilities  ;  and,  secondly,  how 
they  may  be  employed  to  the  greatest  advantage.  It  is 
evident  that  scientific  principles  largely  enter  into  such  a 
construction  as  the  Forth  Bridge,  but  one  questions  at 
once  whether  similar  principles  can  be  applied  in  the  case 
of  yarn  and  cloth  structures.  Iron  is  relatively  a  stable 
factor ;  stress  and  strain  and  leverage,  etc.,  can  be 
calculated,  but  what  can  be  done  with  such  an  unstable 
material  as  wool,  and  how  can  the  influences  of  the  various 
yarns,  the  bending  capacities,  etc.,  in  the  case  of  cloth 
structures  be  estimated  for  ? 

Now,  this  is  certainly  a  legitimate  question,  but  instead 
of  making  us  ridicule  the  idea  of  scientific  principles 
applied  to  cloth  construction  it  should  rather  emphasize 

[  58.] 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


59 


the  necessity  of  such  principles.  For  the  word  ‘  science  ’ 
betokens  an  attitude  or  quality  of  mind  as  much  as 
material  organization,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  more 
diverse  and  diffuse  the  subject,  the  more  is  a  scientific 
attitude  of  mind  desirable.  Thus  no  apology  is  necessary 
for  the  following  treatment.  True,  it  is  a  basis  of  action 
rather  than  action  itself,  which  is  here  laid  down  ;  but 
this  may  be  said  of  any  science.  Upon  this  vScience  of 
Cloth  Construction  may  be  built  up  the  Art  of  Cloth 
Construction. 

The  Numbering  of  Yarns — i.e.,  the  ‘  Counts  ’  of 

Yarns 

It  will  be  evident  to  the  most  casual  observer  of  textile 
structures  that  yarns  of  various  thicknesses  are  employed, 
and  that  some  means  of  indicating  the  thickness  must  be 
adopted.  From  the  designer’s  point  of  view  yarns  should 
be  numbered  according  to  their  diameters — i.e.,  a  yarn 
with  a  diameter  of  one-eightieth  part  of  an  inch  should  be 
8o’s,  with  one-fortieth  part  of  an  inch  a  40’s,  and  so  on — 
so  that  with  a  moment’s  thought  he  could  estimate  the 
number  of  threads  and  picks  per  inch  (an  inch  being  the 
most  convenient  measure)  for  any  simple  structures,  such 

as  plain  cloth,  - —  twill,  etc. 

2 

The  financial  aspect  intervenes,  however.  For  the 
yarn  buyer  must  know  what  length  and  weight  of  yarn 
he  is  purchasing,  whatever  the  diameter  may  be.  Thus 
'  he  knows  how  much  he  will  have  to  pay  and  what  lengths 
of  warps  and  weights  of  pieces  can  be  made  from  a  given 
batch  of  yarn. 


6o 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


As  weight  affords  the  most  ready  means  of  estimation, 
almost  all  yarns  are  sold  and  bought  by  weight,  and  the 
length  is  stated  by  indicating  the  yards  to  which  one 
pound  of  material  is  extended.  A  further  complication, 
however,  arises  by  reason  of  different  kinds  of  yarns 
being  measured  on  different  sizes  of  reels.  Thus  the 
worsted  reel  is  i  yard  round,  70  yards  or  revolutions 

J  §60  «  22^001^  fer  ^  ^  Zifotsikd. 


lffi™i  g  ^  Zdot^Cc^. 


&Ox  840  ^  55600 


FIG.  35.— GRAPHIC  n.I.USTRATION.S  OF  YARN  COUNTS 


give  a  ‘rap,’  and  8  ‘  raps  ’  are  made  up  into  a  hank  ;  thus 
the  worsted  hank  =  70  x  8  =  560  yards,  and  the  counts  of 
a  worsted  yarn  is  really  the  hanks  per  pound. 

Example  i. — 40’s  count  =  40  hanks  of  560  yards  =  22,400 
yards  per  pound. 

Example  2.— lo’s  count  =10  hanks  of  560  yards  =  5,600 
yards  per  pound.  (See  Fig.  35,  A.) 

The  cotton  reel  was  li  yards  in  circumference,  hence 
the  cotton  hank  is  560  +  -^  (560)  =  840  yards  ;  but  as  with 
worsted  the  hanks  per  pound  equal  the  counts. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


6i 


Example  i. — 40’s  count  =  40  hanks  of  840  yards  =  33,600 
yards  per  pound. 

Example  2. — lo’s  count  =10  hanks  of  840  yards  =  8,400 
yards  per  pound.  (See  Fig.  35,  B.) 

For  practical  calculations  it  is  desirable  to  take  all 
the  materials  with  which  one  has  to  deal,  and  work  out 
the  yards  per  hank  on  the  supposition  that  the  hanks 
per  pound  give  the  counts.  Thus  the  following  list 
would  be  kept  in  view  by  a  Yorkshire  manufacturer.* 


Methods  of  Counting  Yarns. 


Type  of  Yarn. 

Basis  of  Counts. 

Per  Hank. 

Woollen  : 

Leeds 

1,536  yards  =  6  1b. 

256  yards 

Galashiels 

300  „  =  24  oz. 

200  „ 

West  of  England 

320  „  =i6oz. 

320  „ 

American  ‘  Run  ’ 

1,600  ,,  =  i  lb. 

1,600  ,, 

American  ‘Cut’ ... 

300  „  =  i  lb. 

300  „ 

Worsted . 

560  „  =  I  lb. 

560  „ 

Cotton  . 

840  „  =  I  lb. 

840  „ 

Linen  . 

300  „  =  I  lb. 

300  „( per ‘lea’) 

Silk  : 

Spun 

840  „  =  I  lb. 

840  „ 

Tram  . 

Organzine 

Weight  in  drams  of 
1,000  yards 

Yards  per  oz.f 

1,000  „ 

Metric  or  Conti- 

NENTAL  . 

Metres  per  kilogramme 

1,000  metres 

French  . 

Metres  per  half  kilo¬ 
gramme 

1,000  ,, 

It  will  now  be  evident  that  the  manufacturer,  in  pur¬ 
chasing  yarns,  will  know  on  the  one  hand  that  he  has  to 

*  At  the  end  of  the  book  a  graphic  diagram  for  converting  one  system 
of  yarn  counts  to  another  is  given  ;  the  student  will  find  it  both  useful 
and  instructive. 

t  Thus,  2/7,000  =  7,000  yards  per  oz.,  the  thread  being  in  two  strands. 
A  loss  of  one-third  is  allowed  in  ungumming  ;  thus  2/6,000  becomes 
2/8,000=8,000  yards  per  oz. 


62 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


pay  for  so  many  pounds,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  he 
has  a  certain  length  of  yarn  from  which  he  can  make  a 
certain  length  of  cloth. 

In  one  case  it  is  evident  that  length  has  been  deemed 
more  important  than  weight,  for  in  Bradford  weft-yarns 
are  sold  by  the  ‘  gross  of  hanks  ’ — i.e.,  144  hanks  of 
560  yards  each — of  which  the  weight  will,  of  course, 
depend  upon  the  counts.  Supposing  the  counts  to  be 
36’s,  then — 


560x144 
V  oA  ~4 


560X36 

From  this  it  is  evident,  since  the  two  560’s  cancel  one 
another,  that : 


To  Ascertain  the  Weight  of  a  Gross  of  Hanks  of  any 
given  Count 

Method. — Divide  144  by  the  counts,  and  the  result  is 
the  weight  in  pounds. 

Example  i. — Find  the  weight  of  a  gross  of  40’s  botany  : 
144-4-40  =  3‘ 6  pounds. 

Example  2. — Find  the  weight  of  a  gross  of  72’s  botany: 
144-4-72  =  2  pounds. 

Shortened  methods  of  this  character  are  frequently 
employed  by  manufacturers,  and  every  manufacturer 
should  be  capable  of  discovering  easy  and  convenient 
methods  on  similar  lines  to  this. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  defect  of  most  of  the  systems 
in  vogue  for  numbering  yarns  is  that  the  heavier  and  thicker 
the  yarns  the  less  the  count  number,  and  the  lighter  the 
yarn  the  greater  the  count  number.  This  is  expressed  by 
saying  that  counts  vary  inversely  to  the  weight. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  63 


Example  i. -—Comparing  8’s  and  i6’s  counts:  A  given 
length  of  8’s  is  double  the  weight  of  the  same  length  of 
i6’s. 

Example  2.-— i  pound  of  i6’s  is  double  the  length  of 
I  pound  of  8’s.  Thus  it  is  evident  that  counts  correspond 
with  length,  and  that  counts  and  length  vary  inversely 
to  weight.* 

Denomination. — Care  should  be  taken  in  dealing  with 
the  counts  of  a  variety  of  yarns  that  they  are  all  on 
the  same  basis— Lg.,  that  they  indicate  relatively,  for 
example,  the  same  number  of  yards  per  pound. 

Example. — 20’s  cotton  yarn  =  30’s  worsted  yarn,  for — 

840  X  20=  16,800  yards  per  pound,  and 
16,8004-560  =  30  hanks  per  pound — i.e.,  30’s  counts 
worsted. 

Rules  for  converting  counts  from  one  system  into 
another  may  readily  be  originated  if  the  yards  per  pound 
are  first  found.  Perhaps  tlie  only  difficult  one  is  the 
dram  silk  counts,  of  which  the  following  is  an  example  : 

Example. — Convert  5  dram  silk  into  spun  silk  counts : 

1,000  yards  =  5  drams,  therefore 

As  5  :  256  :  :  1,000  ;  x  =  ^1,200  yards  per  pound. 

and  51,200-4-840  =  6o'9’s  counts  in  spun  silk. 

The  metric  systemt  is  based  upon  the  kilometres  (1,094 
yards)  per  kilogram  (2,204  pounds)  and  the  French  system, 
is  half  the  metric — i.e.,  half  a  kilogram  is  the  weight  taken. 
The  idea  of  taking  fractional  parts  of  the  earth’s  circum- 

*  The  student  should  here  decide  for  himself  whether  in  direct  pro¬ 
portion  or  not. 

t  See  Appendix,  p.  202,  for  Fig.  48. 


64 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


ference  and  of  its  weight  as  the  standards  of  measurement 
has  really  no  other  claim  in  this  case  than  the  extended 
use  of  the  metric  system,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  not  ex¬ 
clusively  employed  by  the  French  is  practically  a  feather 
in  the  cap  of  our  own  English  cotton  trade,  the  counts 
of  which  (based  upon  practical  requirements)  and  the 
French  counts  are  nearly  alike. 

Ranges  of  Counts. — Most  factories  employ  at  least  two 
or  three  ranges  of  counts.  Thus,  a  fancy  worsted  manu¬ 
facturer  might  keep  in  stock,  say,  twenty-eight  shades 
of  2/16’s  serge  yarns,  of  2/28’s  botany,  and  of  2/48’s 
botany. 

Two-Fold  Yarns. — If  two  threads  of  a  given  count 
(say,  40’s)  are  twisted  together,  it  will  be  evident  that 
the  count  is  just  half  that  stated  for  — 40  hanks*  of  40’s 
(  =  i  pound)-!- 40  hanks  of  40’s  (=i  pound)  will  give  40 
hanks  of  twisted  yarn  =  2  pounds,  or  20  hanks  per  pound, 
and  therefore  20’s  counts  (Fig.  36,  A). 

If  the  threads  twisted  together  are  unequal  in  thick¬ 
ness,  then  a  count  heavier  {i.e.,  a  smaller  number)  than 
the  thickest  component  will  be  formed — not  a  count  in 
between  the  two. 

This  will  be  realized  from  Fig.  36,  B,  in  which  is  repre¬ 
sented  diagrammatically  the  twisting  together  of  30’s  and 
15’s  worsted  yarns.  As  shown  at  A,  a  convenient  length 
must  be  taken  to  base  the  estimate  on ;  in  this  case 
I  pound  of  the  highest  numbered  counts  (30’s)  is  the 
standard,  giving  560x30  =  16,800  yards  =i  pound.  To 
twist  with  this  it  is  evident  that  16,800  yards  of  15’s 
must  be  taken,  weighing  2  pounds  ;  therefore  the  length 
*  The  word  ‘  hanks  ’  stands  for  length. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  65 


A 


-X 


B 


01  Ccx  C  i^unV, 

/  ^\o  - 


C 


^.<^.11  r5'3^>f4»^3^^.  r53i^  >  <# 


m 


0^  fS^  /  '^' 

•  )  C0  C(Hl*ii^. 

0t  SO%2‘  "ZCi  Ci,  CihmV. 


D 


1 _ I 


^50  a^  0^  fSk 


'  >  ^ 

^ _ i  ^  51. 


0t  \0%^  ^  C^fi.C^ 


^aaiuud^ 


SbMddHuM^ 


ypo  SLmiA  ^  to’s  Uiutjik**^  50  W 


Qt9O0a6^t4W’»>30(^ 
a^ioo  ■  •  30i*  t04fy 

gg4&  ^6taei^^(3cc]im^^^nJLa0l^ 


SO0  2(atS» 


15  ^  ^  tSi  (^t**tV. 


I 


(Hunt  Sitf 


SSO  i(an&^  ^  tSfi. 

4»  tS0  3&»St  fO'fi  '  iS  (ifi. 

amilS0  ~  •  -  10.  ' 

_ i 

!*  a  ^  306  (^t*ut. 

tS03C»Ji^  iff  o' 6  ‘  \6  tAu^'. 


5 


FIG.  36.— GRAPHIC  ILLUSTRATIONS  IN  TWISTING  YARNS 
(Black  weights  are  given  ;  white  weights  are  to  be  found) 


66 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


of  two-fold  yarn  will  be  16,800  yards,  weighing  3  pounds 


=  10  hanks  of  two-fold  yarn  per  pound,  or  lo’s 


‘  resultant  ’  counts. 

The  ‘  average  ’  counts  will  be  10  x  2  =  20’s. 

This  is  all  conveniently  summed  up  as  follows  : 

30-4-30=1 
3o-M5  =  2 

30  -F  3  =  lo’s  ‘  resultant  ’  counts  or  20’s  ‘  average  ’ 


counts.* 


But  it  is  not  necessary  to  take  the  highest  count  (30’s) 
as  the  standard.  With  the  lowest  count  as  the  standard 
the  result  is  : 

i5"i-30  =  o-5 
15-4-15  =  1-0 

15  I"  5  =  lo’s  ‘  resultant  ’  counts  or  20’s  ‘  average  ’ 


counts. 


Again,  the  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  multiplying 
the  two  counts  together,  adding  the  two  counts  together, 
and  dividing  the  one  by  the  other.  This  is  summed  up 
as  follows  : 

OQ  X  15  450 

j ^  =  lo’s  ‘  resultant  ’  counts  or  20’s  ‘  average’ 

30  +  15  45  ® 


counts. 


The  question  may  also  be  put  in  the  following  form  ; 
What  counts  of  yarn  must  be  twisted  with  30’s  to  yield  a 


*  The  student  should  exercise  himself  in  casting  these  two-fold 
yarns  ;  the  principle  involved  is  so  simple  that  it  is  not  considered 
advisable  to  give  it  here. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  67 


lo’s  resultant  counts,  or  with  15’s  to  yield  a  lo’s  resultant 
count.  These  two  problems  may  be  stated  : 


30  X  IQ 
30-10 


32.0 

20 


15’s  yarn  required  to  yield  with  30’s 
a  resultant  count  of  lo’s. 


—  IQ  ~  ~  30'^  yarn  required  to  yield  with  15’s  a 

resultant  count  of  lo’s. 


These  varieties  of  the  same  calculations  are  clearly  shown 
in  Figs.  36,  A  to  F. 

Of  course,  in  estimating  either  the  resultant  or  the 
average  counts  the  yarns  must  be  expressed  in  the  same 
denomination,  or  incorrect  results  will  be  obtained. 
Thus  the  following  example  shows  another  method  of 
working  (which  the  student  should  think  out),  and  at 
the  same  time  illustrates  the  necessity  of  bringing  to  the 
same  denomination. 

Example. — Find  the  resultant  counts  of  20’s  cotton  and 
40’s  worsted  twisted  together. 


,  ,,  20x840  20x3  ,  .  , 

20  s  cotton  =  — -  or - ^  =  30  s  worsted  counts. 

560  2  ^ 


30  X  40  _  1 ,200  hanks 
30  +  40”  70  lbs. 


Or, 


=  17’ I  hanks  per  lb.  =  about  17’s 
counts  of  worsted. 


40’s  worsted  =  or  ^^^^-^  =  26’ 6  cotton  counts 

840  3 

of  40’s  worsted. 


20  X  27 

-  =  ii'5  resultant  counts  in  cotton. 

20+27 


Proof : 

ii'5X3 

2 


=  17’s  resultant  counts  in  worsted,  as  already 


ascertained. 


5—2 


68 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


This  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  proof,  but  practically  it 
may  be  taken  as  such.  Students  should  check  their 
calculations  in  this  way  whenever  possible. 

The  Diameter  of  Yarns 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  that  the  idea  of  con¬ 
structing  cloths  on  scientific  principles — based  upon  the 
diameters  of  yarns — had  rarely  or  never  occurred  to  our  pre¬ 
decessors.  In  the  early  part  of  the  past  century,  however, 
a  Mr.  Beaumont  thought  of  this,  and  actually  worked  out 
or  suggested  that  the  diameters  of  yarns  might  be  ascer¬ 
tained  by  noting  how  many  threads  and  picks  per  inch 
could  be  laid  side  by  side  in  a  plain  cloth  with  warp  and 
weft  of  a  similar  thickness — e.g.,  if  forty,  then,  he  argued, 
the  diameter  of  the  yarn  would  be  one-eightieth  part  of 
one  inch  (see  Fig.  i).  The  greatest  impetus  was  given  to 
this,  however,  by  the  measurements  carried  out  in  1889 
by  the  late  Mr.  T.  R.  Ashenhurst,  and  from  his  results  a 
reasonable  rule  for  finding  the  approximate  diameter  of 
any  given  yarn  has  been  worked  out. 

To  Ascertain  the  Diameter  of  any  Given  Yarn. 

Method. — Find  the  square  root  of  the  yards  per  pound 
and  extract  8  per  cent.*  for  cotton  and  silk,  10  per  cent, 
for  worsted,  and  15  per  cent,  for  woollen. 

Example  i. — Find  the  diameter  of  1/40’s  botany — 

40  X  560  =  22,400  yards  per  pound,  and 
^22,400=  149  — 10  per  cent.  =  135  or  part  of  an 
inch,  or  135  threads  would  lie  side  by  side  in  i  inch. 

*  These  percentages  should  be  varied  according  to  the  designer’s 
experience. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  69 


Example  2. — Find  the  diameter  of  2/60’s  cotton — 

30  X  840  —  25,200  yards  per  pound,  and 
725,200  =  159  —  8  per  cent.  =  148  or  part  of  an 
inch,  or  148  threads  would  lie  side  by  side  in 
I  inch. 

Example  3. — Find  the  diameter  of  20  skeins  woollen — 

20x256  =  5,120  yards  per  pound,  and 
75,120  =  71  —  16  per  cent.  =  60  or  To  part  of  an  inch, 
or  60  threads  would  lie  side  by  side  in  i  inch. 


Variations  in  the  Diameters  of  Yarns. 

In  buying  yarns,  the  counts  are  always  stated,  but 
rarely  or  never  the  diameters.  Nevertheless,  the  designer 
must  know  the  approximate  diameters  under  all  condi¬ 
tions. 

From  one  known  count  and  diameter  any  other  may 
be  readily  ascertained.  To  find  the  rule  for  this  is  most 
interesting  and  instructive,  and  as  it  may  be  readily 
understood  by  means  of  diagrams,  it  is  here  given  in  the 
hope  that  some  of  the  more  difficult  problems  may  be 
treated  by  the  student  in  a  similar  manner. 

Let  A,  B,  C,  Fig.  37,  represent  the  sections  (made  square 
instead  of  round  for  convenience*)  of  three  yarns  whose 
counts  may  be  respectively  9,  4,  i — i.e.,  counts  are  in¬ 
versely  to  weight  or  area.f 

*  '7rr'  =  areaof  circle  from  which  a  precisely  similar  induction  may 
be  made. 

t  The  student  should  prove  to  his  own  satisfaction  that  counts, 
weight,  and  area  are  in  practically  the  same  proportion  ;  this  may  be 
done  graphically. 


70 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


1.  From  A  one  might  suppose  that  diameter  and  area 
(  =  counts)  would  always  be  in  the  same  proportion. 

2.  From  B  one  might  suppose  that  the  diameter  would 
be  half  the  area — i.c.,  area  =  4,  diameter  =  4-^2  =  2. 


A 


Diameter=i  ;  Area  =  i 


Diameter  =  2;  Area=4 


C 


Diameter  =  3;  Area  =  9 


FIG.  37.— UliSEAKCH  TO  PROVE  THAT  THE  DIAMETERS  OF  YARNS  VARY  AS 
SQUARE  ROOT  OF  AREA  (COUNTS) 


3.  On  drawing  C  to  prove  this,  the  method  is  found 
incorrect,  for  9-i-2  =  4|-,  whereas  the  diameter  is  3. 

It  now  occurs  to  the  investigator  that  possibly  the 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


n 

diameter  varies  as  the  square  root  of  the  area  {i.e.,  J  counts), 
for  ^1  is  I,  V4  is  2,  is  3. 

4.  To  test  whether  this  is  so  or  not  draw  a  diagram  D, 
in  which  area  (  =  counts)  is  16  and  ^16  =  4  the  diameter. 

On  referring  to  p.  68  it  will  be  seen  that  when  dealing 
with  the  diameters  of  yarns  it  is  stated  that  the  diameters 
vary  as  the  square  root  of  the  length.  From  Fig.  38  it 
will  be  realized  that  length  and  area  vary  in  the  same 
proportion,  inversely- — extend  a  mass  to  four  times  the 
length,  and  it  is  one  quarter  the  area ;  extend  it  to  nine 
times  the  length,  and  it  is  one  ninth  the  area.  Now, 
count  is  in  direct  proportion  to  length,  therefore  counts 
and  areas  are  in  proportion  (inversely)  to  one  another. 
Further,  as  the  square  root  of  an  area  equals  the  diameter, 
therefore  the  square  root  of  the  count  is  in  direct  propor¬ 
tion  to  the  diameter  ;  hence  the  following  rule. 

To  Ascertain  the  Diameter  of  any  Yarn  from  a  Known 
Count  and  Diameter. 

Method. — ^Work  out  in  proportion  to  the  square  root 
of  the  counts  inversely. 

Example. — A  1/40’s  yarn  (denomination  not  neces¬ 
sary)  has  a  diameter  of  yi-,  what  is  the  diameter  of 
a  lo’s  ? 

As  J40  :  Jio  :  :  135  :  x=6'j^  or  -gV  of  an  inch  ; 

or— - 

As  [^40  :  v/io  :  :  135  ;  xf  = 

As  40  ;  10  :  :  135"^  :  ^^  =  67  or  •g’-^  of  an  inch. 

In  order  that  calculations  such  as  these  may  be  readily 
solved  it  is  useful  to  thoroughly  realize  and  remember  that 


72  STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 

the  counts  of  a  yarn  is 
in  proportion  to  the  area 
and  the  square  root  of  the 
counts  to  the  diameter. 


Sets  and  Set  Calcula- 

w 

<  TIONS 
> 

°  After  studying  the 
I  foregoing,  the  student 

would  naturally  take 
an  inch  as  the  unit  of 
measurement,  and  state 
the  set  of  the  cloth  as 
so  many  threads  per  inch. 
Two  varying  factors 
must,  however,  be  taken 
into  account :  firstly,  the 
practical  fact  that  it  is 

<  usually  necessary  to  de- 

S  note  the  splits  or  dents 

y  per  inch,  and  the  threads 

<  through  each ;  and, 

J.  secondly,  that  the 

u  standard  width  taken 

has  unfortunately  been 
varied  from  i  inch  up 
to  45  inches. 

If  the  designer  bases 
his  art  of  cloth  con¬ 
struction  on  the  science 
of  cloth  construction, 


ll 

m 

m 

vs 

s 

1 

1 

1^1 

1- 

SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


73 


he  will  always  work  by  the  threads  per  inch — just  as 
the  picks  are  counted  in  a  cloth — and  will  indicate  the 
reed  along  with  the  set  by  stating  the  dents  per  inch 
and  the  threads  per  dent;  thus,  12’s  reed  4’s=48  threads 
per  inch,  as  indicated  in  Chapter  IT 

The  other  most  important  systems  are  : 

Leeds,  based  upon  the  porties  (38  threads)  in  9  inches. 

Bradford,  based  upon  the  beers  (40  threads)  in  36  inches. 

Blackburn,  based  upon  the  beers  (40  threads)  in  45  inches. 

Manchester,  based  upon  the  splits  (2  threads)  in  36  inches. 

Glasgow,  based  upon  the  splits  (2  threads)  in  37  inches. 

The  last  two,  perhaps,  illustrate  the  absurdity  of 

having  these  varied  systems,  but  as  they  are  in  existence 

the  designer  must  thoroughly  study  them  and  learn  to 

express  a  given  set  in  any  of  them.  Thus  ;  to  convert  a 

12’s  reed  3’s  set  into  Bradford — 

12  X  3  =  36  threads  per  inch. 

^  36  _  Bradford  set,  or 
40  ^ 

36  X  9  „ 

-  =  8'5  portie  set,  Leeds. 

12x36  =  432  Manchester  set,  etc. 

The  method  of  converting  one  set  to  the  other  is  so  very 
simple  that  any  further  treatment  here  is  not  required; 
the  student  should  for  himself  arrange  all  the  systems 
in  list  form  for  reference. 

Cloth  Construction 

The  practical  diameters  of  yarns  may  be  made  the  basis 
of  certain  interesting  and  useful  calculations  for  cloth 
structures.  The  building  of  cloths  on  scientific  lines  may 
be  treated  under  two  heads — viz.,  the  principles  govern- 


74 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


ing  the  interlacing  of  flexible  cylinders  (representing 
threads)  and  the  modifications  which  must  be  made  in 
dealing  with  sUch  variable  materials  as  wool,  cotton,  silk, 
etc.,  in  the  equally  variable  yarn  structures. 

Elementary  Considerations  of  Interlacings. — If  reference 
be  made  to  Fig.  39,  the  elementary  principles  governing 
interfacings  may  readily  be  realized. 

In  plain  weave  it  is  evident  that  every  thread  must 
be  separated  from  its  neighbour  by  about  the  diameter  of 


the  weft.  So  that  if  the  warp  and  weft  yarns  are  the  same 
counts — say,  40’s  botany  with  a  diameter  of  tUs  part  of  an 
inch — then  135-7-2  =  67' 5  threads  per  inch  will  be  required, 
and  so  on  with  yarns  of  other  diameters. 

In  2  twill  cloth  the  section  (see  Fig.  40)  shows  that 

the  threads  are  grouped  in  pairs,  each  pair  being  separated 
by  a  weft  intersection.  Thus  the  calculation  for  the 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


75 


threads  per  inch,  taking  40’s  botany  again,  will  be  (135 -i- 6) 
X  4  =  90  threads  per  inch. 

For  simple  cloths  requiring  to  be  woven  on  the  square 
— i.e.,  with  an  equal  number  of  threads  and  picks — the 
above  method  works  out  satisfactorily  for  finding  the 
set— Lg.,  threads  per  inch  in  the  loom,  hence— 


To  Find  the  Set  in  the  Loom  for  any  Ordinary  Weave,  such 


as  Plain,  — -  Twill, 
2  ’ 


3 


Twill,  etc. 


Method.~DividL&  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  by  the 
threads  4- intersections,  and  multiply  by  the  threads  in  the 
repeat  of  the  weave. 

2 

Example. — Find  the  threads  per  inch  for  — ^  twill  with 
a  20  skein  woollen  yarn  (-gV  diameter). 

(6o-r=6)  X  4  — 40  threads  per  inch  in  the  loom. 

No  better  practical  rule  than  the  above  can  be  given  ; 
but  attention  must  be  directed  to  where  it  fails  in 
application,  for  a  moment’s  consideration  will  serve  to 
show  that  it  will  not  serve  under  all  conditions.  The 
following  are  the  chief  modifying  influences  in  cloth 
construction  : 

{a)  Modifications  in  the  bending  influences  caused  by 
using  yarns  of  various  diameters,  or  by  employing  weaves 
which  group  together  certain  threads  or  picks,  thus 
strengthening  themselves  and  modifying  the  structure. 

(b)  Modifications  of  structure,  i.e.,  changing  the  sup¬ 
porting  positions  of  both  threads  and  picks. 

(c)  The  averaging  of  the  strain  in  fabrics — i.e.,  the 
manner  in  which  strains  applied  at  one  time  and  in  one 


76 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


•CLOTH*  1' 


IF  J 


F9iI1T-FAfE:Fv 
bL3\cn  • 
TV/ILL 


CIPTH  Z 


V/AKg  • 


CIP.TM  •  5 


F91HT 
FAF£:F>w 

bi3\cn 

WEFT-I^B 


PLATE  2. — STANDARD  WEAVES 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


77 


part  of  the  structure  are  sometimes  distributed  through¬ 
out  the  fabric. 

{d)  Modifications  caused  by  building  cloths  with  the 
idea  of  modifying  the  structure  in  the  finishing  operations 
(crabbing,  etc.). 

Before  passing  on  to  the  consideration  of  each  of  the 
foregoing,  attention  must  be  directed  to  the  fact  that 
the  deductions  already  made  are  slightly  inaccurate,  as 
the  threads,  for  example,  in  perfect  plain  cloth  will  not 
be  distant  from  one  another  quite  the  diameter  of  the  weft 
taken  here,  for  being  slightly  lifted  and  depressed  alter¬ 
nately,  taken  horizontally  they  will  be  rather  closer  together. 
Mr.  T.  R.  Ashenhurst  was  the  first  to  point  out  that  if 
yarns  of  equal  thickness,  and  having  practically  an 
equal  bending  power  on  each  other,  were  employed  in 
warp  and  weft,  then  for  warp  and  weft  to  attain  to  the 
same  plane  on  each  side  of  the  centre  of  the  cloth  a 
curvature  of  i8o°  throughout-— Le.,  for  both  warp  and 
weft— is  the  result  (or  6o°  with  the  altitude  of  the  triangle, 
the  known  side— or  30°  with  the  centre  plane  of  the  cloth). 

This  may  be  represented  diagrammatically,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  39. 

Construction. — i.  Draw  A,  A',  representing  the  base-line 
or  centre  of  the  cloth  ;  then  warp  and  weft,  being  equal 
in  flexibility,  wiU  be  bent  equally  out  of  the  straight  line 
—4.6.,  above  and  below  this  line. 

2.  At  a  distance  half  the  diameter  of  warp  (or  weft)  from 
A,  A',  rule  in  lines  B,  B',  C,  C/  representing  the  centres 
of  the  warp-threads  (or  weft-picks)  in  their  highest  and 
lowest  positions  respectively. 

3.  Take  any  convenient  position  on  B,  and  with  radius 


78 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


half  diameter  of  yarn,  describe  circle  D,  representing  the 
highest  position  of  the  warp-thread. 

4.  With  radius  half  diameter  of  yarn  multiplied  by  3, 
describe  circle  E,  representing  the  bending  influence  of 
thread  D,  upon  the  outer  edge  of  weft,  and  E'  for  the 
inner  edge  of  weft. 

5.  With  half  diameter  of  warp  (or  weft)  and  upon  C,  C', 
but  tangential  to  E,  describe  circle  F,  representing  the 
lowest  position  of  the  warp-threads. 

6.  With  radius  half  diameter  of  yarn  multiplied  by  3 
describe  circle  G,  representing  the  bending  influence  of 
thread  F  upon  the  outer  edge  of  weft  and  G'  for  the 
inner  edge  of  the  weft. 

7.  The  weft  will  take  the  direction  compounded  of  the 
action  of  the  two  spheres  of  influence,  D  and  F,  and  the 
angle  of  the  weft  with  A,  A'  will  be  30°  (or,  with  the  known 
side  of  triangle,  which  is  here  shown;  60°). 

For  convenience  the  three  sides  of  the  triangle  may 
now  be  represented  by  the  letters  a,  h,  and  c. 

We  are  specially  concerned,  however,  with  the  ratio  of 
a  :  h,  for  in  using  any  given  yarn  its  diameter  =  a  and  the 
threads  per  inch  to  be  employed  for  plain  cloth  will  be— 

Ks  a  :  h,  inversely — i.e., 

As  &  :  a  ;  or 

As  I ’732  :  I  :  :  diameter  of  yarn  :  the  set ; 


that  is  to  say,  for  plain  cloth  divide  the  diameter  of  the 
yarn  by  i'732,  and  the  result  is  the  set  or  threads  per  inch.* 

Exactly  the  same  principle  applies  in  — ,  ^ ,  etc., 

2  3 

*  If  C  is  employed  as  the  unit  of  measurement  (twice  diameter  of 
yarn),  B=o'866,  and  two  diameters  of  yarn  may  be  taken. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


79 


twills  and  ordinary  makes  so  far  as  the  intersections  are 
concerned.  Thus  in  calculating  the  threads  per  inch  for 
any  of  these  structures  proceed  as  follows  : 

1.  Draw  accurately  a  section  of  the  cloth,  being  careful 
to  draw  more  than  one  repeat  and  then  to  mark  off  clearly 
the  exact  repeat. 

2.  Find  the  number  of  repeats  of  the  weave  in  i  inch 
by  dividing  the  diameter  of  the  yarn  by  the  units  of  space 
the  weave  occupies,  threads  counting  as  units  and  inter¬ 
section  as  0'732. 

3.  Finally,  ascertain  the  threads  per  inch  by  multiply¬ 
ing  the  repeats  of  the  weave  per  inch  by  the  number  of 
threads  in  each  repeat  of  the  weave. 


Example  i. — -Find  the  threads  per  inch  for  twill 


with  a  32’s  worsted  (xLo  diameter). 

As  7‘464*  :  I  :  :  120  :  x—16  repeats  of 
and  16x6  =  96  threads  per  inch. 


twill, 


Or,  to  put  it  in  its  simplest  form  : 


(i20-h-7‘464)  X  6  =  96  threads  per  inch, 

2 

Example  2. — Find  the  threads  per  inch  for -  twill 

(see  Fig.  40)  with  a  20  skein  woollen  yarn  (1/60). 

(1)  4  threads  +  (2  X  O’ 732)  =  5’ 464  units  of  space  in  — - 

twiU. 

(2)  (60-4-5-464)  X  4=44  threads  per  inch  for  ? —  twill. 

2 

Thus  it  will  be  evident,  as  was  to  be  expected,  that  on 
this  system  the  sets  obtained  are  rather  closer  than  those 


*  The  7‘464  is  composed  of  6  threads +  2(0732)  intersections  =  7‘464 
units  of  space  the  weave  occupies. 


8o 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


obtained  by  the  previous  system  (see  p.  75).  Roughly 
speaking,  the  first  system  gives  the  set  in  the  loom  and 
the  latter  system  the  set  of  the  finished  cloth. 

The  latter  system  may  be  reduced  to  a  rule  as 
follows  : 

To  Find  the  Set  of  the  Finished  Cloth  for  any  Ordinary 

Weave,  such  as  Plain,  ~ —  Twill,  ^ —  Twill,  etc. 

2  ’3 

Method. — Divide  the  diameter  of  the  yam  by  the  threads 
+  intersections  (each  =  o‘ 732),  and  multiply  by  the  threads 
in  the  repeat  of  the  weave. 

Attention  may  now  be  directed  to  the  first  class  of 
modifying  influences  noted — viz.,  modifications  caused  by 
using  yarns  of  various  diameters,  or  by  weaves  which 
group  certain  threads  and  picks  together,  thus  relatively 
strengthening  them  and  modifying  the  structure.  It  is 
not  here  possible  to  do  more  than  direct  the  attention  of 
the  student  to  these  modifications,  as  it  is  very  ques¬ 
tionable  whether  it  is  possible,  with  the  many  varying 
factors,  to  bring  all  structures  within  any  one  rule  ;  it 
seems  more  probable  that  a  point  has  been  reached  at 
which  the  art  of  textile  design  attains  to  a  leading  place  ; 
but  this  art,  nevertheless,  may  be  most  conveniently 
based  upon  the  foregoing  more  or  less  scientific  con¬ 
ditions.  Certainly  the  following  particulars,  along  with 
those  already  given,  will  prove  most  useful  to  the  prac¬ 
tical  designer. 

A  recognised  method  of  research  is  to  go  to  extremes, 
and  this  method  may  be  well  applied  here.  The  cloths 
so  far  considered  have  been  formed  with  both  components 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


8i 


—warp  and  weft— bending  equally ;  now  the  two  extreme 
types — viz.,  those  in  which  weft  only  bends,  the  warp 
being  perfectly  straight,  and  those  in  which  the  warp 
only  bends,  the  weft  being  perfectly  straight— must  be 
considered.  The  first  are  termed  weft-rib  structures, 
because  the  ribbed  surface  is  formed  by  the  weft ;  and 
the  second  warp-rib  structures,  because  the  ribbed  struc¬ 
ture  is  formed  by  the  warp. 

Weft-rib  Structures.  ~  The  conditions  of  weft-rib 
structures  are  shown  in  Fig.  41,  drawn  in  a  similar 
manner  to  Fig.  39,  but  with  all  the  warp-thread  sec¬ 
tions  d,  d  in  a  straight  line,  the  weft  e,  e  doing  all 
the  bending. 

It  is  at  once  obvious  that  the  condition  is  more  or  less 
unnatural,  for  unless  (i)  the  threads  d,  d  are  much 
thicker  than  the  picks  e,  e,  causing  them  to  bend,  or 
(2)  the  threads  d,  d  are  pulled  straight  in  the  finishing 
operation,  it  is  evident  that  this  structure  is  impractical 
and  simply  a  result  obtained  on  paper.  But  suppose 
the  result  is  possible,  what  is  the  distance  apart  of  the 
warp  threads  ?  for  this,  to  the  designer,  is  the  main 
question.  Now,  it  is  evident  that  the  threads  may  be 
any  distance  apart  greater  than  the  diameter  of  the  weft, 
but  if  a  weft  angle  of  60°  with  the  warp  is  considered 
suitable,*  then  the  set  of  the  cloth  may  usually  be  obtained 
from  the  altitude  of  the  triangle,  which  is  just  the  diameter 
of  the  warp  plus  the  diameter  of  the  weft,  and  the  space 
occupied  by  a  thread  plus  an  intersection  equals  i'732  of 

*  The  student  must  here  understand  that  60°  is  only  selected  in  this 
case  as  a  usual  angle,  but  within  certain  limits  any  angle  up  to  45° 
may  be  decided  upon. 


6 


82 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


FIG.  41.— ILLUSTKATING  A  WEFT-KIB  STRUCTURE  IN  TLAN  AND  SECTION 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  83 


this,  or  a  thread  plus  an  intersection  equal  to  o' 732  of  the 
diameter  of  warp  plus  the  diameter  of  wefti* 

2 

Example. — Find  the  set  for  a  botany  cashmere  (  — 
twill)  made  as  follows  : 

Warp.  Weft. 

All  56’s  botany  All  92’s  botany 

(56’s  =  j-U  of  an  inch).  (9'^’^—noJ  of  an  inch). 

The  altitude  of  the  triangle  is — 

TTfr  +  ^^  =  ^V  part  of  an  inch,  and  ^Vx  i'732=  jV  of 
.  an  inch  for  the  base  of  the  triangle  A,  B,  C. 

2 

Then,  since  the  — -  twill  contains  in  one  repeat  two  triangles 
and  one  thread — 

(5V+tV)+it«  =  2V  +  tt9  of  an  inch. 

Thus,  as  -^2  of  an  inch  is  the  space  occupied  by  each  twill 
of  three  threads,  then — 

22  X  3  =  66  threads  per  inch. 

The  picks  per  inch  may  be  varied  for  quality  from  about 
150  to  200. 

This  is  a  practical  answer,  as  it  happens,  but  it  has 
not  been  worked  out  on  precise  and  scientific  lines,  for 
the  bending  power  of  threads  upon  one  another  may 
be  taken  as  the  cubes  of  their  diametersf  inversely ; 
thus  56’s  botany  will  bend  92’s  botany — 

As  3-^5  :  riv)  a-nd  this  has  not  been  taken  into  account. 

Another  matter  worth  further  consideration  is  the 
question  of  picks  per  inch,  for,  as  in  weft-rib  structures, 
the  weft  forms  the  surface  of  the  texture  (see  Figs.  41 
and  42),  it  is  naturally  a  most  important  component. 

*  The  student  is  recommended  to  draw  the  diagram  for  plain  cloth 
to  these  conditions. 

t  This  is  merely  an  approximation  based  upon  observation. 

6 — 2 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  85 


In  the  examples  given — with  the  warp  perfectly 
straight — as  many  picks  per  inch  can  be  inserted  as  the 
diameter  of  the  yarn  will  allow  ;  but  it  is  also  well  to  note 
carefully  that  as  greater  value  and  more  bending  is  given 
to  the  warp  fewer  picks  will  be  required,  until  eventually 
equal  quantities  of  warp  and  weft  will  be  employed — i.e., 
an  ordinary  structure  produced.  Carr3dng  out  the  idea 
stni  further,  finally  a  warp-rib  structure  results,  in  which 
the  warp-threads  do  all  the  bending,  lying  close  to  one 
another,  and  the  picks  straight  and  separated  at  least 
by  the  diameter  of  the  warp-threads. 

Every  possible  condition  may  be  expected  in  practice, 
but  a  thorough  comprehension  of  the  foregoing  particulars 
will  enable  the  designer  to  experiment  under  favourable 


2 

conditions.  For  instance,  a  — ^  hop-sack  cloth  presents 

2 

the  same  section  as  the  — ^  twill,  but  owing  to  the  manner 
in  which  the  picks  follow  one  another,  a  different  set  is 
required ;  for,  while  in  one  repeat  of  the  — ^  twill  there  are 
four  points  of  intersection — all  of  which  at  one  time 


or  another  are  occupied  by  the  weft — in  hop-sack 

the  four  possible  points  of  intersection  are  only  occupied 
twice  out  of  the  four,  certain  of  the  threads  never 
being  separated  by  weft  intersections  throughout  the 
piece  ;  hence  a  closer  set  may  be  employed  (see  also 
Fig.  49). 

Warp-rib  Structures. — The  treatment  of  warp-rib  struc¬ 
tures  will  be  exactly  the  reverse  of  weft-rib  structures,  so 
therejis  practically  no  need  to  exemplify  them  here. 


86 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Summary  on  the  Setting  of  Cloths 

Before  leaving  this  subject  the  student  should  clearly 
realize  how  he  is  to  make  the  scientific  principles  the  basis 
of  the  ‘  Art  of  Cloth  Construction,’  for  he  must  be  in 
a  position  not  only  to  explain  what  has  been  done,  but  to 
press  forward  with  confidence  on  to  untrodden  paths. 

The  following  will  be  the  most  convenient  line  of 
thought : 

1.  The  yarns  to  be  employed,  their  nature  and  their 
diameters. 

2.  The  weave  structure  most  suitable  for  each  class  of 
yarn,  and  the  setting  required  for — 

(a)  Ordinary  structures. 

(b)  Weft-rib  structures. 

(c)  Warp-rib  structures.* 


3.  The  effects  of  finish,  etc.,  on  the  resultant  cloth. 
Example. — Soft  cloths  are  in  fashion  ;  what  varieties 

can  be  obtained  with  —  twiU  ? 

2 

I.  With  a  mule-spun  30’s  botany  (diameter  yTe) 
say,  a  40’s  weft  (diameter  yT34-),  it  is  probable  that  a  very 
nice  cloth  can  be  produced. 


2.  (a)  Ordinary  structure 

(b)  Weft-rib  structure^ 

(c)  Warp-rib  structure  J 


J  go  threads  per  inch.f 
[  90  picks  per  inch. 

80  threads  per  inch. 
134  picks  per  inch. 
jii6  threads  per  inch. 

[  84  picks  per  inch. 


*  In  sateen  structures  a  curious  averaging  up  of  the  strains  of  the 
intersections  takes  place  ;  hence  nearly  as  many  picks  as  threads  can 
be  introduced  (see  Fig.  49). 

t  Finished  cloth. 301, i  An_angle  of  45°  is  here  taken. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  87 


3.  As  (a)  would  be  a  very  ordinary  style,  a  range  of  ex¬ 
periments  is  carried  out  with  the  interlacing  indicated  in 
Fig.  42,  and  to  develop  the  weft-rib  the  fabric  may  be 
‘  crabbed  ’  and  treated  very  strongly  in  finishing,  thus 
straightening  the  warp  and  bending  the  weft  as  required  to 
give  a  weft  surface  with  ‘  cuts  ’  formed  at  varying  distances. 

Other  Factors  to  he  Considered. — In  the  foregoing  treat¬ 
ment  the  main  factors  only  have  been  taken  into  account. 
For  the  benefit  of  those  who  would  consider  the  matter 
further,  the  following  list  of  influences  which  have  not 
been  definitely  taken  into  account  is  given  : 

{a)  The  nature  of  the  materials  employed. 

(6)  The  arrangement  of  the  fibres  in  the  thread 
structure. 

(c)  The  influence  of  twist  on  the  diameter  of  the  yarn 
and  on  its  weaving  and  finishing  properties. 

{d)  The  effect  of  direction  of  twist  of  warp  and  weft 
in  relation  to  weave. 

{e)  The  compression  of  yams  in  weaving. 

(/)  Contraction  of  the  cloth  in  weaving. 

(g)  Contraction  of  the  cloth  in  finishing  and  loss  of 
oil,  fibre,  etc.* 

Weight  and  Cost  Calculations.— If  the  student  has 
comprehended  the  foregoing  calculations  all  else  will  be 
comparatively  simple.  For  instance,  in  calculating  the 
weight  of  a  piece,  if  (a)  the  length  of  material  in  the 
piece,  and  (b)  the  yards  per  pound  of  the  material,  are 
given,  the  cost  of  the  material  in  the  piece  may  be  ascer¬ 
tained  in  a  few  moments. 

*  See  the  author’s  work  on  ‘  Pattern  Analysis.’ 


88  STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 

Example.— Vindi  the  weight  of  a  fabric  woven  as  follows 

Warp.  Weft. 

All  2/40’s  botany,  All  1/20’s  botany, 

64  threads  per  inch.  64  picks  per  inch. 

Width  of  piece  in  reed  34  inches. 


32  inches  in  reed 

FIG.  43, — GRAPHIC  ILLUSTRATION  OF 
WARP  CALCULATION 


yards  of  weft  in  the  piece. 

But  there  are  560  x  20  = 
per  pound,  so  139,264-i-ii 
of  material  in  the  weft. 

It  will  here  be  noted 


Length  of  warp  70  yards, 
yielding  64  yards  of  cloth  in 
the  grey. 

Now,  64  X  34  =  2,176 
threads,  and  as  each  one 
of  these  is  70  yards  long, 
2,176  X  70  =  152,320  yards  of 
material  in  the  warp.  But 
there  are  560x20=11,200 
yards  of  this  material  per 
pound  ;  so 

i52,320-Mi,200=  134  lbs. 
of  material  in  the  warp. 
This  is  graphically  repre¬ 
sented  in  Fig.  43. 

For  the  weft  calculation 
work  in  a  similar  manner  ; 
thus  64x34  =  2,176  inches 
of  yarn  jn  i  inch,  therefore 
yards  of  yarn  in  i  yard  of 
the  cloth.  And 

2,176  X  64=  139,264 

11,200  yards  of  this  material 

,200=i2yVY  or  about  12 J  lbs. 

that  the  length  of  the  grey 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  89 


cloth  (64  yards)  and  not  the  length  of  the  warp  (70  yards) 
is  taken,  but  in  worsted  coatings,  instead  of  allowing  a 
percentage  for  waste  of  weft  it  is  customary  to  calculate 
the  weft  for  the  full  length  of  warp  (70  yards  in  this  case). 

The  cost  of  the  materials  in  the  piece  may  readily  be 
found  if  the  price  per  pound  is  given.  Thus,  if  the  cost 
of  2/40’s  is  2s.  lod.,  and  1/20’s  2s.  gd.,  then — 

■£  s.  d. 

i3f  poundsx  34=4624d.  =  I  18 
12^  pounds  X  33  =  4i2^d.  =  I  14 
Total  cost  of  materials  3  12  ii 


All  such  calculations  as  these  should  be  treated  as 
certain  heald  and  reed,  etc.,  calculations  in  Chapter  II. 
have  been  treated. 

Whenever  possible  practical  tests — say,  lo-yard  pieces 
— should  be  made,  and  measured  at  every  stage,  in  order 
that  the  bulk  may  be  correctly  estimated  for. 

The  following  set  of  formulas  will  be  readily  under¬ 
stood  ;  such  a  set  should  be  drawn  up  by  each  designer 
to  suit  his  own  particular  needs,  care  being  taken  that  each 
formula  acts  in  all  cases,  not  in  one  or  two  particular  cases: 


NxWxL=PxCxH.* 
.-.  NxWxL_ 

PxH 


NxW 

PxCxH 

NxL 

PxCxH 

WxL 

PxCxH 


-L. 
=W. 
=  N. 


*  N  =  threads  or  picks  per  inch;  W  =  width  of  piece  in  loom; 
L  =  length  of  warp  or  grey  cloth;  P  =  lbs.  weight;  C  =  counts  ;  and 
H=  yards  per  hank. 


go 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


In  this  treatise  the  question  of  weaving,  etc.,  wages, 
cost  of  finishing,  etc.,  is  not  touched  upon,  being  here  out 
of  place. 

Changing  the  Weights  of  Cloths. — Heavy  winter  styles 
may  be  required  in  lighter  summer  makes,  or  light  summer 
styles  may  be  called  for  in  heavier  winter  makes  ;  hence 
it  is  desirable  to  understand  thoroughly  the  various 
methods  of  changing  the  weights  of  fabrics. 

There  are  four  methods — viz.,  (i)  by  changing  the 
counts  of  yarn,  (2)  by  changing  the  set  or  picks,  (3)  by 
changing  both  counts  and  set,  (4)  by  any  empirical 
method  which  fits  a  fair  number  of  cases.  One  might 
add  a  fifth  method— viz.,  adding  a  warp  or  weft  back, 
or  a  ‘  wadding’  pick,  or  another  cloth — i.e.,  double  cloth. 
Example. — The  set  for  32’s  worsted  yarn  in  an  ordinary 

2 

^  twill  is  found  to  be  88  threads  per  inch. 

1.  To  make  this  cloth  as  heavy  again  a  id’s  yarn  may 

2 

be  employed.  But  how  can  a  id’s  yarn  with  — ^  twill  be 

weavable  if  32’s  yarn  is  weavable  ? 

2.  Similarly,  i7d  threads  per  inch  may  be  employed  ; 
but  is  it  possible  to  get  I7d  threads  of  a  32’s  yarn  into  an 

2 

inch  with  -  twill  weave  ? 

2 

3.  By  changing  both  counts  and  set  it  is  possible  to  (a) 
obtain  the  required  weight,  (6)  retain  the  same  balance 
of  structure.  Why  this  should  be  possible  requires  care¬ 
ful  thought,  but  the  following  brief  explanation  will 
probably  help  the  student  to  thoroughly^comprehend 
the  conditions. 

As  shown  in  Figs.  44  and  45,  to  add  weight  to  a  cloth 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION  gi 


its  thickness  must  be  increased  ;  to  increase  its  thickness 
thicker  yarns  must  be  employed  :  to  employ  thicker  yarns 
fewer  threads  and  picks  must  be  employed.*  The  ques¬ 
tion  now  arises,  In  what  proportion  shall  any  increase  or 


FIGS.  44  AND  45.— ILLUSTRATING  GRAPHICALLY  THE  THEORY  OF  VARYING 
CIOTHS  IN  WEIGHT 

decrease  be  made  in  counts  and  set  ?  If,  for  instance,  a 
cloth  is  required  double  the  weight — i.e.,  As  i  :  2 — will 
the  proportion  for  the  count,  set,  and  picks  he — A  s  i  :  2  ? 

*  Let  the  student,  looking  at  the  diagram,  state  the  conditions  for 
decreasing  the  thickness  of  a  cloth  in  the  same  way. 


92 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


1.  Eor  the  count  the  change  will  be  inversely — viz., 
as  2  :  I,  a  lower  number  giving  a  thicker  yarn. 

But,  further,  to  change  the  thickness  of  the  cloth  it  is 
the  diameter  of  the  yarn  which  must  be  changed  as  i  :  2, 
and  as  the  V  counts  =  diameter,  the  required  change  in 
counts  will  be — 

As  2  :  I  :  :  counts  in  original  cloth  :  J  counts  in 
new  cloth. 

2.  As  a  yarn  with  a  greater  diameter  is  now  to  be 
employed,  a  lower  set  will  be  necessary  just  in  this  pro¬ 
portion — viz.,  as  2  :  I  :  :  set  of  original  cloth  :  set  of 
new  cloth. 

In  Eig.  44  the  increasing  or  decreasing  of  cloths  in 
multiple  proportion  is  shown,  simply  in  squares,  to  em¬ 
phasize  the  principle.  In  Fig.  45  the  thread  structure 
is  shown  on  similar  lines. 

From  these  particulars  the  following  induction  may  be 
made  : 

Rule. — Increase  or  decrease  the  thickness  of  the  cloth 
— i.e.,  the  diameter  of  the  yarns  (the  of  the  counts 
inversely)  employed — in  the  proportion  required.  Also 
decrease  or  increase  the  number  of  threads  and  picks  in 
the  same  proportion.  One  of  the  most  difficult  calcula¬ 
tions  is  the  following  : 

2 

1.  Design  a  cloth  to  a  given  weave — say,  twill — 

peifectly  balanced  in  structure  and  of  a  given  weight 
per  yard — say,  16  ounces. 

2.  Change  the  cloth  to  heavier  {i.e.,  four-fourths 
become  five-fourths,  therefore  proportion  is  as  4  :  5) — i.e., 


20  ounces. 


SCIENCE  OF  CLOTH  CONSTRUCTION 


93 


3.  Change  the  weave  from  ^ —  to  - —  twill  (thus  making 

2  4 

the  cloth  more  than  20  ounces). 

4.  Bring  the  cloth  back  to  20  ounces,  retaining  the 


4 


4 


twill,  and  maintaining  the  perfect  structure. 


In  concluding  this  chapter  the  writer  can  only  add  that 
if  the  student  has  truly  realized  all  that  has  been  demon¬ 
strated,  and  has  carried  out  for  himself  the  graphic 
illustrations  suggested,  there  are  no  calculations  of  any 
practical  value  which  he  will  be  unable  to  tackle. 


CHAPTER  V 


THE  DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS  ON 
POINT-PAPER 

IT  is  a  recognised  principle  that  to  speak  any  language 
other  than  one’s  mother-tongue  one  must  be  able 
to  think  in  that  language.  Similarly  with  textile 
design — in  order  that  the  designer  may  express  what  he 
wishes  in  textile  structures  he  must  think  in  the  structure 
itself.  Every  medium  lends  itself  to  a  particular  style 
of  design ;  thus,  with  a  pencil  one  tends  to  design  in  line, 
with  a  brush  in  mass  ;  to  design  stained  glass  in  broken 
mass,  and  so  on.  Now,  squared  paper  (i.c.,  point-paper) 
lends  itself  to  a  particular  style  of  design,  and  the  first 
mistake  the  student  invaiiably  makes  is  to  think  in 
point-paper  and  not  in  the  thread  structure.  This  must 
be  guarded  against,  the  best  way  being  to  design  a  set 
of  apparently  effective  plans  on  point-paper — say,  i6 
threads  and  i6  picks— and  try  them  on  a  suitable  warp. 
The  student  will  then  appreciate  the  value  of  thinking 
in  the  structure  itself,  employing  point-paper  only  as  a 
means  of  expressing  his  thoughts. 

But  although  this  must  be  recognised  and  acted  upon, 
it  does  not  follow  that  point-paper  may  not  be  employed 
ill  working  out  new  styles.  The  student  should  certainly 

[  94  ] 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERLACINGS 


95 


base  his  ideas  on  the  structure  itself,  hut  he  should  also 
train  himself  to  think  in  the  structure  while  designing  on 
point-paper.  This  is  the  basis  of  the  following  treatment, 
point-paper  being  employed  as  the  medium  for  designing 
in,  while  the  criticism  of  the  results  is  based  upon  the 
actual  appearance  of  the  resultant  structure. 

Developments  from  Plain  Weave 
Plain  weave  is  the  simplest  possible  structure,  but  it 
may  be  modified  in  several  ways,  yielding  several  interest¬ 
ing  and  useful  effects  for  employing  alone  or  in  combina¬ 
tion.  Thus  No.  I,  on  Design  Sheet  2,  is  nothing  but  plain 
weave  with  2  picks  in  a  shed.  No.  2  with  3  picks  in  a  shed, 
and  No.  3  with  4  picks  in  a  shed.  No.  4  has  2  threads 
working  together.  No.  5  has  3  threads  working  together, 
and  so  on.  In  No.  7  plain  weave  is  the  basis  with  2  picks 
and  2  threads  together.  No.  8  with  3  picks  and  3  threads 
together,  and  No.  g  with  4  picks  and  4  threads  together. 
Nos.  10  to  13  are  mixed,  and  No.  14  is  the  most  complex 
style  of  the  series.* 

It  should  be  noted  that  while  Designs  i,  2,  3  are  the 
most  easily  produced,  the  shuttle  simply  being  passed 
through  the  same  shed  twice,  three  times,  and  four  times, 
yet  designs  4  and  5  present  an  advantage,  for  in  the  three 
former  designs  a  ‘  catch-end  ’  must  be  placed  at  one  or  both 
ends  of  the  cloth  (unless  the  loom  is  a  box-loomf)  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  insertion  of  the  second  pick  drawing  out  the  first 
pick,  and  so  on.  The  same  remark  applies  to  Nos.  7,  8,  g, 
and  14.  Nos.  i  to  3  are  known  as  warp-ribs,  as  the 
cloth  presents  a  warp  surface,  the  weft  being  hidden  ; 

*  All  these  styles  may  be  produced  with  two-heald  shafts, 
t  The  student  should  think  very  clearly  upon  these  practical  points. 


96 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Nos.  4,  5,  and  6  are  known  as  weft-ribs  for  similar  reasons, 
and  Nos.  7,  8,  9,  and  14  are  known  as  hop-sack,  Celtic, 


PL7MM 


WLAVL 


DESIGN'  SHEET  2. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OK  \VAKP*KIBS,  WEFT-RIBS, 
AND  HOP-SACKS  FROM  PLAIN  WEAVE*' 


*  The  student  should  also  experiment  with  these  weaves  in  yams  of 
different  thicknesses — say,  for  example,  No.  10  warped  i  thread  2/80’s 
cotton,  2  threads  2/20’s  cotton;  and  wefted  i  pick  2/10’s  cotton,  i  pick 
2/80’s  cotton. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERLACINGS 


97 


or  mat  weaves.  As  these  have  already  been  dealt  with 
in  Chapter  IV.,  no  further  consideration  is  here  called  for.* 

Twills  and  Diagonals 

A  twill  structure  is  one  in  which  the  interlacing  pro¬ 
duces  lines  running  diagonally  across  the  piece.  If  the 
lines  are  only  lightly  defined,  the  structure  is  spoken  of 
as  a  ‘  twill  ’ ;  if  strongly  defined  and  of  a  varied  char¬ 
acter,  as  a  ‘  diagonal,’  although  the  terms  are  practically 
synonymous. 

The  angle  of  these  lines  to  the  horizontal  (or  perpen¬ 
dicular)  may  be  varied  by,  first,  the  angle  of  the  interlacing 
or  the  move  [i.e.,  the  point-paper  design) ;  and,  second,  the 
proportion  of  threads  to  picks  in  the  resultant  cloth. f 

There  are  many  varieties  of  twills  ;  the  following  will 
be  found  a  convenient  classification  : 

(а)  Ordinary  twills. 

(б)  Compound  twills. 

(c)  Combination  twills  and  Crape  weaves. 

{d)  Broken  twills. 

{e)  Sateens  and  sateen  twills. 

Most  authorities  class  the  sateens  as  twills,  but  the  idea 
of  construction  in  the  sateen  is  anything  but  the  twill  form. 
Thus  the  sateens  really  form  a  link  between  ordinary 
weave  structures  and  the  more  elaborate!}^  figured  styles. 

(a)  Ordinary  Twills. — The  simpler  twills  are  the 
first  advance  on  plain  weave,  the  idea  of  construction 
being  to  move  the  intersection  one  horizontally  and  one 

*  Refer  to  pp.  82,  84,  diagrams. 

t  The  student  should  clearly  realize  these  points  by  making  a  few 
experimental  sketches,  or,  better  still,  by  trial  on  the  loom. 

7 


98 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


vertically,  leaving  two  or  more  threads  and  picks  between 
the  repetition.  This  will  be  fully  understood  by  reference 

to  Design  Sheet  i  (p.  23).  No.  15  is  the  — ^  twill  warp  face, 
2 

No.  17  is  the  —  twill  with  equal  quantities  of  warp  and 

O 

weft,  and  No.  19  is  the  -  -  twill  weft  face.  Thus  it  will 

be  evident  that,  in  addition  to  the  variations  previously 
noted,  twills  may  have  equal  quantities  of  warp  and  weft 
on  the  surface,  or  they  may  be  warp-face — i.e.,  more  warp 
on  the  surface ;  or  they  may  be  weft-face — i.e.,  more  weft 
on  the  surface.  If  the  warp  is  good  and  the  weft  poor  a 
warp-face  twill  is  naturally  employed ;  if  the  warp  is  poor 
and  the  weft  good  a  weft-face  is  naturally  employed. 

Again,  the  student  must  not  forget  that  by  varying 
the  proportion  of  picks  to  threads  in  the  actual  structure 
a  marked  difference  in  the  resultant  cloth  is  to  be  noticed  ; 

thus  the  weft  twill*  and  the  weft  sateenf  are  fre¬ 
quently  woven  with  twice  as  many  picks  as  threads  per 
inch,  with  the  result  that  the  face  twill  angle  is  much  less 
than  45°  while,  strange  to  relate,  the  back  appears  plain — 
hence  the  term  ‘  plain  back.’ 

The  origination  of  simple  twills— -say,  on  8,  10,  12,  etc., 
threads  and  picks — is  of  much  importance,  since  a  good 
designer  should  realize  to  the  utmost  the  capacity  of  his 
machinery.  Further,  the  following  principles  of  working 
are  such  that  the  designer  who  would  be  reaUy  capable 
cannot  afford  to  ignore  them. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  that  aU  possible  twiUs  producible 
*  Cashmeres.  t  Italians. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


99 


upon  twelve  shafts  are  required,  proceed  as  shown  in 
Design  Sheet  3.  Commencing  with  a  single  row  of  12  dots 
in  No.  I,  add  another  row  for  No.  2,  two  rows  for  No.  3,  and 
so  on,  eleven  effects  being  thus  obtained.  Then  two  rows 


DESIGN  SHEET  3. — ILLUSTKATiNG  THE  SYSTEMATIC  ORIGINATIONS  OF  SlMl^LE  TWILLS 
0  =the  commencement  of  a  new  basis 

of  dots,  as  shown  in  No.  12,  should  be  taken,  and  gradually 
placed  further  apart,  as  indicated.  Then  one  single  and 
one  double  row  should  be  taken,  as  illustrated  in  No.  41, 
and  again  all  possible  effects  worked  out,  and  so  on.  In 
other  words,  the  designer  should  design  the  system  upon 
7—2 


100 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


which  he  will  originate  new  effects,  working  in  such  a  manner 
that  there  is  nothing  haphazard,  but  rather  efficient  and 
complete  work  throughout.  It  may  appear  useless  carry¬ 
ing  out  Designs  i  and  ii,  2  and  lo,  15  and  17,  etc.;  but 
complete  results  are  worth  a  great  deal  as  a  basis  for  future 
research,  and  in  this  case,  after  one  set  of  twills  has  been 
completed,  the  principles  for  research  on  other  numbers 
of  threads  and  picks  are  so  apparent  that  no  further  trouble 
will  be  encountered  in  making  as  many  twills  as  required. 

Another  matter  which  concerns  all  twills,  and  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  extent  plain  cloths  also,  is  the  ‘  direction  of  twist  ^ 
in  the  warp  and  weft  yarns. 

The  Influence  of  Twist  on  Cloth  Structure. — Obviously, 
yarns  may  be  twisted  to  the  right  (open-band)  or  to  the 
left  (cross-band),  according  to  whether  the  spindle-bands 
upon  the  mule  or  frame  are  open  or  crossed,  or  the 
machine  running  reverse-twist  or  not  (Fig.  46).  Now, 
on  first  thought,  the  direction  of  twist  in  yarns  may  not 
seem  to  be  of  pressing  importance,  but  after  the  student 
has  served  a  short  apprenticeship  to  designing  he  will 
be  struck  with  the  appearance  illustrated  in  Fig.  47 — 
viz.,  that  when  a  twill  runs  to  the  right  it  shows  up  much 
more  distinctly  than  when  it  runs  to  the  left.  The 
reason  for  this  is  not  far  to  seek.  As  shown  in  Fig.  46 
at  A,  when  warp  and  weft  yarns  are  twisted  in  opposite 
directions,  upon  being  laid  across  one  another  at  right 
angles  (as  they  will  be  in  the  cloth)  the  twists  cross  one 
another,  since  the  upper  surface  of  one  yarn  is  in  contact 
with  the  under  surface  of  the  other  yarn  ;  hence  they  tend 
to  stand  off  from  one  another,  leaving  the  structure 
distinct.*  This  separation  appears  to  be  further  accen- 
*  Hence  these  conditions  should  be  the  best  for  wear. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


lOI 


a. 


/ 

/ 

/ 


3. 


C. 


/ 

/ 

? 

\ 

/ 

2 

/ 

> 

> 

2 


2 

/ 

/ 

> 

2 


KIG.  46.  — ILLUSTRATING  THE  VARIOUS  CONDITIONS  OK  TWISTING  AND  TWILLING 


T02 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


tuated  by  making  the  twiU  (if  the  structure  is  a  twiU), 
as  indicated,  oppose  the  surface  direction  of  the  twist  of 
the  yarns.  If,  as  in  Meltons  and  many  wooUen  goods  a 

close,  compact,  structureless  tex¬ 
ture  is  required,  then  warp  and 
weft  must  be  twisted  in  the  same 
direction  (Eig.  46,  C),  so  that  in  the 
cloth  they  ‘  bed  ’  into  one  another, 
c  while  if  the  weave  is  a  twiU  it  must 
^  be  made  to  run  with  the  ‘  bedding  ’ 
o  twists  of  the  yarns.  Fig.  46  re- 

Z 

^  presents  all  the  possible  condi- 

Z 

^  tions  except  one  which  the  student 
^  may  draw  for  himself.  A  little 
g  thought  and  a  few  experiments 

1  with  cords  or  rovings  twisted  and 

2  laid  across  one  another  will  demon- 

h  strate  the  necessary  conditions  for 

s  any  required  structure. 

< 

H  The  Repetition  of  Twills.  —  A 

j  word  of  warning]  is  necessary 

T 

5  respecting  the  ‘  repetition  ’  of 
z  twills.  If  the  student  refers  to 
p.  25,  and  thoroughly  under¬ 
stands  what  is  there  written,  he 
will  be  able  to  repeat  twiUs 
correctly,  but  under  any  circum¬ 
stances  he  should  experiment  with 
the  repetition  of  complex  twills,  as  indicated  in  Design 
Sheet  4.  In  No.  I  the  dividing  up  of  the  design-paper 
into  repeats  of  the  weave  is  iUustrated,  the  weave  being 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS  103 

filled  into  each  repeat,  perfect  joining  resulting.  Nos.  2 
and  3  are  more  difficult,  while  a  distinct  method  of  repeti¬ 
tion  is  shown  in  designs  5  and  6. 

(&)  Compound*  Twills. — These  twills  are  compound 
in  the  sense  that  two  or  more  simple  weaves  are 
employed  in  their  construction,  as  illustrated  in  Design 


C9MPUETED 


6 


C9MFLET&D 

DESIGN  SHEET  4. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  REPETITION  OF  WEAVES 

Sheet  5,  No.  i.  The  elements  of  which  the  large  twill  is 
compounded  may  be  twills  or  weaves  other  than  twills,  but 
under  any  circumstances  they  are  combined  to  give  in 
the  total  result  a  twill  of  a  more  marked  character.  Two 
points  must  be  specially  attended  to  :  Firstly y  to  select 
for  combination  weaves  which  naturally  will  fit  well 


*  The  word  ‘  compound’  has  no  special  significance  ;  it  is  here  em 
ployed  simply  because  it  is  the  most  convenie7it  word. 


104 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


together  ;  secondly,  to  select  weaves  which  will  weave 
well  together — i.e.,  are  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal  wefting 


•CIJP.TM- 


P91HT-FAFEK. 


2a 


PfINT- PAPER. 


PLATE  3. — COMPOUND  TWILLS 

capacity,  or  are  combined  in  such  a  way  that  they  will 
weave  well  together.  In  No.  2  the  angle  of  the  resultant 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


105 


twill  is  45°,  and  the  weaves  in  combination  are  twills  at 
45°.  In  No.  3,  while  the  main  twill  runs  at  about  72°,  the 
component  twills  run  at  different  angles  ;  hence  the  diffi¬ 
culty  in  ‘  cutting  ’  or  joining  up  the  weaves  one  to  the 
other.  In  No.  4  a  practically  perfect  twill  is  indicated 
so  far  as  wefting  capacity  is  concerned,  while  in  design  No.  5 


DESIGN  SHEET  5. — ILLUSTRATING  COMPOUND  TWILLS 


the  weaves  combined  are  of  such  different  wefting 
capacity  that  one  weave  must  be  sacrihced  to  the  other — 
in  this  case  the  sateen  to  the  plain  weave,  this  weave 
limiting  the  number  of  threads  and  picks  per  inch. 

(c)  Combination*  Twills. — These  twills,  in  one  sense, 

*  The  term  ‘combination’  is  employed  just  as  ‘compound’ — i.e., 
because  it  is  a  convenient  term. 


io6 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


are  similar  to  compound  twiUs — that  is,  they  are  com¬ 
pounded  of  two  or  more  weaves.  As  the  order  of  com¬ 
bination  is  here  the  chief  factor,  they  are  given  the  title 
‘  combination  ’  twills. 


DESIGN  SHEET  6. — ILLUSTRATING  CO.MBINATION  TWILLS 


The  idea  lying  at  the  basis  of  these  structures  is  the 
mixing  up  or  combining  of  two  or  more  weaves  to  produce 
another  totally  different  weave.  For  example,  weaves  A 
and  B  on  Design  Sheet  6  may  be  employed  in  a  thread  and 
thread  combination. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


107 


The  following  example  illustrates  the  method,  which  is 
the  important  thing  for  the  student  to  note : 

1.  Mark  off  16  threads  x  8  picks  for  eight  effects  or 
designs. 

2.  Paint  in  all  the  even  threads  in  some  transparent 
colour. 

3.  Upon  the  odd  threads  insert  weave  A,  always  com¬ 
mencing  on  the  same  thread. 

4.  Upon  the  even  threads  insert  weave  B,  in  the  first 
design  commencing  with  the  first  thread,  in  the  second 
with  the  second  thread,  and  so  on  as  indicated,  thus  pro¬ 
ducing  apparently  eight  distinct  twills  which  should  now 
be  painted  in  solid  colour,  in  order  to  judge  of  their 
respective  merits. 

Examination  reveals  that  the  four  last  effects  are 
duplicates  of  the  first  four,  and  the  fact  that  weave  A 
is  a  four-thread  weave  suggests  the  explanation  which  the 
student  must  confirm  experimentally.  Thus  in  Nos.  9 
and  10  weaves  A  and  C  are  combined,  and  two  effects 
are  evidently  possible,  as  shown,  and  no  more. 

Again,  on  combining  weaves  A  and  D  one  design 
only  will  be  obtained,  for  if  the  weaves  are  put  down 
one  alongside  the  other,*  repetition  occurs  on  the 
thirteenth  thread,  there  being  four  repeats  of  the  three- 
thread  twill  and  three  repeats  of  the  four-thread  twill. 
Hence,  when  the  weaves  are  combined  pick-and-pick,  the 
design  occupies  12  threads  by  24  picks,  and  the  picks, 
having  been  in  every  possible  relationship  to  one  another, 
only  one  effect,  as  here  given,  can  be  produced. 

The  student  should  now,  from  these  particular  examples, 

*  The  student  should  do  this  for  his  own  satisfaction. 


io8 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


endeavour  to  induce  a  rule  which  will  apply  in  all  cases, 
thus  : 

Weaves  on  4  threads  and  8  threads  give  four  effects. 

Weaves  on  4  threads  and  6  threads  give  two  effects. 

Weaves  on  3  threads  and  4  threads  give  one  effect. 

Upon  carefully  thinking  over  these  results,  and  others 
which  may  be  obtained  on  similar  lines,  the  student  will 
speedily  note  that  the  number  of  combinations  producible 
from  the  combination  of  any  two  weaves  will  be  the  greatest 
common  measure  of  the  two  weaves  * 

It  will  now  be  noted  that  the  foregoing  effects  are  very 
regular,  but  if  an  upright  twill  weave  (E)  be  combined 
with  an  ordinary  twill  weave  (A)  the  resultant  twiU  is 
more  or  less  irregular,  as  shown,  and  experiments  with 
various  weaves  show  that — 

Regular  +  regular  weaves  give  regular  combinations. 

I rregular  + irregular  weaves  give  regular  combinations. 

Regular  +  irregular  weaves  give  irregular  combinations. 

The  drafting  of  these  designs  is  very  interesting,  but 
as  the  student  is  at  present  studying  weave  structure  it 
must  be  reserved  for  future  treatment. f 

Crape  Weaves. — These  are  best  treated  here,  as  they 
are  simply  thread-and-thread  and  pick-and-pick  combina¬ 
tion  effects,  receiving  the  name  ‘  crape  ’  owing  to  their 
broken-up  mealy  appearance,  this  being  usually  associated 

*  The  student  must  convince  himself  of  this  by  carrying  out  at  leas 
a  dozen  experiments. 

t  The  student  should  note,  however,  that  while  weaves  A  and  E,  for 
example,  combined  thread  and  thread  would  give  a^'design  on 
40  threads,  yet  there  are  only  9  orders  of  threads,  thus  only  9  heald- 
shafts  will  be  required.  He  should  also  experiment  with  combinations 
of  threads  in  groups  of  two  or  more. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


109 

with  the  term  crape.  In  this  case  one  weave  only  is 
required,  as  illustrated  in  Design  Sheet  7,  weave  A. 
Proceed  as  follows  : 

I.  Taking  twice  as  many  threads  and  picks  as  the 
design  occupies,  paint  every  other  thread  and  pick  in 
some  light  shade — this  is  for  convenience  only. 


DESIGN  SHEET  7.  — ILLUSTRATING  THE  ORIGINATION  OF  CRAl'E  WEAVES 

This  method  has  been  originated  by  the  well-known  head  of  the  Aachen  Schoo 
Weaving  and  Designing 

2.  Now  put  in  the  weave  on  the  white  spaces  only,  as 
shown  in  i,  commencing  on  the  first  thread  and  pick. 

3.  Turn  the  paper  round  90°,  and  put  the  weave  down 
as  before,  as  shown  in  2. 

4.  Turn  the  paper  another  90°,  and  again  insert  the 
weave,  as  shown  in  3. 

5.  Turn  the  paper  another  90°  and  again  insert  the 


no 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


weave,  as  shown  in  4.  Thus  weave  A  will  be  contained 
four  times  in  the  new  design,  which,  nevertheless,  is 
quite  unlike  the  initial  design. 

6.  Having  obtained  the  resultant  weave,  it  should  be 
painted  out  clearly,  as  shown,  so  that  its  merits  may  be 
fairly  estimated. 

The  following  modihcations  of  the  system  are  possible  : 

W  eave  B,  by  commencing  with,  say,  the  second  or 
third  thread  instead  of  the  first. 

Weave  C,  by  painting  in  such  a  weave  C  as  given  for 
the  hrst  time,  the  reverse  of  C  for  the  second,  C  for  the 
third,  and  the  reverse  of  C  again  for  the  fourth,  the  result 
being  as  indicated. 

Weave  D,  by  combining  one  weave  or  more  with  the  twill 
running  in  the  reverse  direction — i.e.,  first  to  the  right 
then  turn  the  paper  go°  and  insert  twiU  to  the  left,  and 
so  on,  as  indicated. 

By  employing  two  or  more  weaves  on  similar  lines 
other  styles  may  also  be  produced. 

The  defect  of  this  system  of  designing  seems  to  be  that 
it  is  impossible  to  foresee  the  resultant  effect ;  but  as 
very  useful  styles  may  thus  be  originated,  the  designer 
cannot  afford  to  ignore  this  somewhat  mechanical  method.* 

As  suggestions  for  diaper,  etc.,  designs  this  system  is 
specially  useful. 

[d)  Broken  Twills. — These  are  produced  by  taking 
any  suitable  twill  as  a  basis  and  breaking  it  up,  so  that  a 
more  or  less  crape  or  broken  appearance  results. 

*  As  a  patent  for  this  system  of  designing  is  claimed  by  the 
originator — the  late  Director  of  the  Aachen  Textile  School — those 
wishing  to  employ  this  method  should  communicate  with  him  direct. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


III 


•CL®.™* 


•CLP.TH* 


f9imtpape:k-- 


2 


PLATE  4. — REARRANGED  TWILLS 


II2 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Weave  A,  Design  Sheet  8,  is  the  basis  of  all  the  effects 
here  shown.  The  number  of  possible  twills  on  this  basis, 

A 


DESIGN  SHEET  8.  —  ILLUSTRATING  THE  REARRANGEMENT  OF  TWILLS 


for  example,  can  most  readily  be  worked  out  in  figures, 
as  follows  : 

I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  lo,  ii,  12  representing  the  twelve 
threads. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


113 

(a)  123,  234,  345,  456,  567,  678,  789,  8910,  9 10 II, 
10 II 12,  II 12 1,  1212  represent  an  arrangement  three  in 
a  group  (Design  No.  i). 

(b)  1234,  3456,  5678,  78910.  9 10 II 12,  II 12  I  2  re¬ 
present  an  arrangement  four  in  a  group  (Design  No.  2). 

Following  out  these  lines,  it  is  evident  that,  so  far  as 
repetition  of  the  design  is  concerned,  the  number  of 
threads  in  a  group  x  the  threads  in  the  original  twill 
divided  by  the  move  gives  the  repeat.  Thus  : 

In  {a)  12x3  =  36  threads  in  the  repeat.*  i 

In  {b)  [12  X  4]-r-2  =  24  threads  in  the  repeat. 

Designs  3  and  4  illustrate  varieties  which  should  be 
investigated  by  the  student  before  reading  further. 

Again  not  only  combinations  of  this  type  are  possible, 
but  also  permutations  ;  thus  the  following  is  a  permuta¬ 
tion  based  upon  {a)  : 

(c)  132,  243,  354,  465,  576,  687,  718,  etc.  (Design  No.  3). 

Other  examples  of  combinations  and  permutations, 

given  on  Design  Sheet  9,  should  make  the  student  ask, 
How  many  combinations  and  permutations  are  possible 
under  these  conditions,  and,  finally,  under  all  similar 
conditions  ? 

The  possible  combinations  and  permutations  in  such 
cases  as  these  may  best  be  ascertained  by  looking  up  the 
subject  in  a  good  algebra,  but  the  few  examples  given 
here  will  enable  the  designer  to  experiment  on  a  systematic 
basis,  which  is  really  the  thing  to  be  aimed  at.  Generally 
speaking,  these  effects  are  useful  as  giving  the  necessary 

*  Again  the  student  should  realize  that,  although  there  are  36  threads 
in  the  repeat  of  the  pattern,  there  are  only  12  orders  of  threads,  and 
only  12  shafts  will  be  required. 

8 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


114 


variety  and  interest  to  a  cloth  without  damaging  the 
structure.  They  possess,  along  with  thread-and-thread 
combinations,  the  useful  property  of  being  producible  on 
comparatively  few  shafts. 


DESIGN  SHEET  9.  —  ILLUSTRATING  THE  SYSTEMATIC  WORKING  OUT  OF  COMBINATIONS 
AND  PERMUTATIONS 


{e)  Sateens  and  Sateen  Twills. — The  sateen  struc¬ 
ture  is  an  interlacing  on  any  given  number  of  threads  and 
picks,  whereby  a  flat,  unbroken,  untwilled  surface  is 
produced  (Fig.  49), 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


115 


The  best  example  to  be  cited  is  what  is  known  to  all  as 
‘  satin.’*  These  weaves  form  a  very  large  class  in  their 


© 
© 

m 
© 
© 
't  © 


1 


© 

© 

© 

© 


© 


pure  form,  and  are  even  more  important  as  useful  bases 
for  originating  new  weaves  and  also  for  distributing  figures. 

n 

In  Design  Sheet  10  the  origination  of  a  sateen  from  a 
*  These  weaves  being  sometimes  termed  ‘  satins.’ 

8 — 2 


DESIGN  SHEET  TO.  —  ILLUSTRATING  THE  VARIOUS  METHODS  OF  ORIGINATING  SATEENS 
(Viz.,  by  rearranging  the  threads  of  an  ordinary  twill,  or  by  counting  upwards  or  onwards) 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


117 

twiU  is  shown  (B),  being  the  threads  of  A  rearranged  in 
the  following  order  : 

I,  4,  7,  2,  5,  8,  3,  6. 

The  sateen  or  sateens  on  any  number  of  threads  can 
be  similarly  originated,  but  as  the  same  arrangement 
can  be  made  in  less  time  by  ‘  counting,’  as  it  is  termed, 
this  latter  method  is  almost  universally  employed. 

In  D,  E,  F,  G  the  system  of  counting  is  fully  illus¬ 
trated. 

If  the  student,  from  these  examples,  masters  this 
system  he  wiU  be  able  to  systematize  his  work  as 
follows : 

For  the  5 -sateen  numbers  from  i  to  5  may  be 
counted. 

Counting  i  gives  the  continuous  twill. 

,,  2  ,,  the  sateen  twill. 

,,  3  ,,  the  sateen  twill. 

,,  4  ,,  the  continuous  twill. 

,,  5  ,,  no  weave  at  all. 

Consequently,  the  sateen  numbers  or  counting  numbers 
here  are  2  and  3. 

Passing  to  the  8-sateen  (see  Design  Sheet  ii) — 

Counting  i  gives  the  continuous  twill  (twill  to  right). 

,,  2  ,,  no  weave. 

,,  3  ,,  the  sateen. 

,,  4  ,,  no  weave. 

,,  5  the  sateen. 

,,  6  ,,  no  weave. 

,,  7  ,,  the  continuous  twill  (twill  to  left). 

,,  8  ,,  no  weave. 


ii8  STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


THE  •  2  •  3ATEEI1 


c^mrmG  i  a  3  4- 


C9ariTIH<S  5  6  7 


TME-9-SATEET1 


OTHTin^  5  6>  7  Z 

DESIGN  SHEET  1 1. —ILLUSTRATING  THE  ORIGINATION  OF  SATEENS 


On  experimenting  for  the  g-sateen — • 

Counting  i  gives  the  continuous  twill  (twill  to  right). 
,,  2  ,,  the  sateen. 

,,  3  ,,  no  weave. 

,,  4  ,,  the  sateen. 

,,  5  ,,  the  sateen. 

,,  6  ,,  no  weave. 

,,  7  ,,  the  sateen. 

,,  8  „  the  continuous  twill  (twill  to  left). 


I  5 


9 


no  weave. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS  119 

The  complete  set  of  countings  for  the  9-thread  sateen 
is  given  in  design  16. 

These  results  may  be  recorded  as  follows  ; 


Counting  for  5-sateen —  ^  2  3  ^  § 

>>  J5  ^  JJ 

35  53  9  ” 


^2  3^5  6 
I  I  - ^  -1  I 


^23456 

I  _ '  I 


From  these  clearly  stated  results  the  following  deduc¬ 
tions  may  be  made  : 

1.  The  number  upon  which  the  sateen  is  based  cannot  be 
counted  (viz.,  5,  8,  9). 

2.  Counting  i,  or  one  less  than  the  sateen  (viz.,  4,  7,  8) 
simply  gives  a  continuous  twill  (twill  to  the  right  or  twill 
to  the  left),  so  that  i  and  4,  i  and  7,  i  and  8  practically 
correspond,  and  are  not  sateen  numbers. 

3.  The  numbers  to  be  counted  for  the  sateens  (on  any 
required  number  of  threads)  are  not  even  numbers,  nor 
odd  numbers,  but  any  number  may  he  counted  which  has 
not  a  measure  in  common  with  the  number  of  threads  upon 
which  the  sateen  is  based. 

Thus,  2  and  3  for  the  5-,  3  and  5  for  the  8-,  and  2,  4,  5 
and  7  for  the  9-sateen  may  be  counted  and  will  yield  the 
sateen. 

4.  It  will  be  further  noted  that,  as  with  the  continuous 
twills,  so  with  the  sateens — the  numbers  linked  together 
are  similar  sateens  but  twilling  to  the  right  or  left,  as 


*  Before  proceeding  further,  the  student  should  ask  himself,  What 
is  the  rule  for  counting  ?  Having  originated  this  for  himself,  and 
tested  it,  he  may  now  read  on. 


120 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


the  case  may  be.  Thus  there  is  only  one  5  and  one  8 
sateen,  two  (really  one)  9  sateens,  and  so  on. 

Every  designer  should  work  out  the  complete  set  of 
sateens  up  to  24  threads,  and  keep  them  ready  for  refer- 


13  n  15 

DESIGN  SHEET  12. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  ORIGINATION  OF  SATEEN.S 

(The  number  at  the  left-hand  corner  of  each  design  is  the  number  counted) 


ence.  To  assist  him  in  doing  this.  Design  Sheet  12  gives 
all  the  countings  for  the  i6-sateen  with  the  numbers 
which  may  be  counted  below. 

The  sateen  structure  in  its  simplest  form  is  really  a 
distributed  weft  or  warp-rib  style,  as  the  case  may  be ;  the 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERLACINGS 


I2I 


picks  or  threads  respectively  lying  close  to  one  another, 
the  threads  or  picks  being  separated  sometimes  by  the 
diameters  of  the  picks  or  threads,  sometimes  by  less, 
owing  to  the  distribution  of  strain  previously  referred  to 
and  illustrated  in  Fig.  49.  The  designer  must  decide  in 
practice  whether  he  requires  a  warp  or  weft  surface,  and 
in  which  direction  the  twill  is  to  run,  or  he  may  be  aston¬ 
ished  with  the  results  he  obtains.  The  flat  view  (Fig.  49) 
of  a  warp  sateen  structure  will  explain  away  most  diffi¬ 
culties  if  thoroughly  studied.  Especially  to  be  noted  is 
the  relationship  of  each  thread  to  its  neighbours,  which 
decides  the  direction  of  the  twill. 

Sateen  Derivatives 

If  the  sateen  weaves  are  useful  in  themselves,  still 
more  are  they  useful  as  a  means  whereby  other  weaves 
may  be  originated,  these  being  usually  spoken  of  as 
‘  sateen  derivatives.’  It  is  convenient  to  consider  sateen 
derivatives  under  two  heads— regular  and  irregular. 

{a)  Regular  sateen  derivatives  are  formed  by  adding 
dots  in  a  definite  order  to  each  sateen  dot — whatever 
the  sateen  may  be — as  instanced  in  Design  Sheet  13,  No.  2, 
in  which  the  sateen  base  is  clearly  indicated  along  with 
the  addition.  No.  i  is  incorrect,  and  indicates  what 
must  be  avoided — i.e.,  the  additional  dots  must  be  added 
to  each  sateen  dot  in  the  same  relative  manner. 

{b)  Irregular*  sateen  derivatives  are  formed  by  adding 
dots  to  each  sateen  dot  in  a  regular  yet  varied  manner ;  they 
are  only  irregular  as  compared  with  the  regular  derivatives. 
As  shown  in  Nos.  3  and  4,  the  8-sateen  presents  to  the  eye 


*  This,  again,  is  only  a  ‘  convenient  ’  term. 


122 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE'DESIGN 


in  one  direction  an  upright  twill,  which  repeats  upon  itself, 
and  in  the  other  direction  an  ordinary  twill  in  which  there 
are  two  distinct  repeats  in  one  repeat  of  the  sateen.  If  the 
upright  twill  is  made  the  basis  of  the  addition  it  is  im- 


DESIGN  SHEET  13. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  IRREGULAR  SATEEN  DERIVATIVES 

possible  to  make  an  irregular  derivative  ;  but  if  the  or¬ 
dinary  twills  are  added  to,  then  one  twill  may  be  filled 
in  with  one  effect,  and  the  other  twill  with  another 
effect,  as  indicated  in  Nos.  4,  5,  6,  and  7,  which  show  the 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


123 


building  in  stages  of  what  is  termed  the  Mayo  or 
Campbell  twiU. 

With  some  sateens  it  is  impossible  to  make  an  irregular 
derivative  ;  with  others — as,  for  example,  the  12  and  16 
sateens  (Nos.  8,  g,  10,  ii,  12) — it  is  possible  to  make  either 
regular  or  irregular  derivatives,  so  that  the  student  should 
have  a  complete  set  of  sateens  at  hand,  and  then  he  can 
select  the  sateen  or  sateens  best  suited  to  his  immediate 
purpose.  Note  should  be  made  that  such  weaves  as 
illustrated  by  No.  i  are  of  no  practical  value,  since  the 
addition  is  so  irregular  that  the  result  is  a  weave  which 
has  practically  no  base,  and,  in  fact,  cannot  be  considered 
as  a  true  weave. 

The  possibilities  of  figuring  by  weave  on  a  12-sateen 
basis  is  well  illustrated  in  No.  12. 

The  following  are  other  methods  of  forming  sateen 
derivatives  : 

(c)  By  employing  the  sateen  dot  as  a  means  of  obtain¬ 
ing  the  positions  of  other  dots  and  then  rubbing  out,  as 
indicated  in  Nos.  13  and  13  a. 

{d)  By  enlarging  or  extending  any  small  derivative  on 
to  a  larger  number  of  threads  and  picks,  as  shown  in 
Nos.  14  and  14  a,  b,  c,  for  the  latter  of  which  the  following 
is  the  calculation : 

Weave  =  8  twilled  hop-sack — this  is  to  be  enlarged  to 
four  times  the  size,  then — 

8  X  8  =  64  small  squares  for  the  effect  as  given  at  14. 

64x4  =  256  small  squares  for  the  enlarged  effect. 

and  v/256  =  i6  threads  by  16  picks  for  the  enlarged 
effect  14  c. 


124 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Motive  and  Weave  Effects 

These  effects  are  produced  on  similar  lines  to  the 
sateen  derivatives,  one  or  more  motives  [i.e.,  suitable 
weaves)  being  first  put  down  on  any  suitable  number  of 
threads  and  picks,  and  then  one  or  more  effects  added, 
the  motive  mark  being  used  as  a  starting-point  for  every 
thread  and  pick.  The  method  of  working  these  out  will 
be  understood  from  the  following  examples  : 

Design  Sheet  14,  No.  i  is  a  combination  of  the  two 
motives  shown  with  one  added  effect,  shown  at  the  side 
and  in  dots  on  the  design.  No.  2  is  a  combination  of 
two  motives  with  two  added  effects.  No.  3  is  a  com¬ 
bination  of  two  motives  with  three  added  effects.  No.  4 
is  a  combination  of  four  motives  with  four  added  effects. 

Many  combination  effects  on  these  lines  may  be  pro¬ 
duced,  being  suitable  for  certain  classes  of  either  coatings 
or  dress  goods.  Effects  described  as  ‘  oatmeal  ’  and 
‘  granite  ’  weaves  may  be  produced  thus. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  other  means  by  which  a  variety 
of  weave  effects  may  be  obtained,  which  the  student  should 
now  be  able  to  work  out  on  his  own  initiative. 

The  Sateen  Rearrangement  of  Twills 

Sometimes  useful  effects  may  be  obtained  by  rearrang¬ 
ing  the  threads  in  a  given  twill  in  the  sateen  order.  It 
is  true  that  the  results  thus  obtained  will  be  similar 
to  sateen  derivatives,  nevertheless  it  is  well  known 
that  by  this  means  new  ideas  are  frequently  obtained. 
There  is  a  further  advantage  in  working  on  these  lines, 
since  the  shafts  which  will  produce  the  ordinary  twill 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


125 


will  produce  the  rearranged  twill  by  fancy  drafting,  as 
is  indicated  in  Design  Sheet  15A,  and  fully  explained 


DESIGN  SHEET  14. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  ORIGINATION  OF  MOTIVE  WEAVE  EFFECTS 

in  Chapter  VIE  The  method  of  rearrangement  is  in¬ 
dicated  in  weave  A  and  Nos.  i  and  2,  the  numbers  being 
as  follows  : 


126 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


DCblGN  SHEET  I5/\ 


Standard  A  :  Order  of 
threads  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8. 

Sateen  rearrangement 
No.  I  :  Order  of  threads, 
6,  I,  4,  7,  2,  5,  8,  3. 

Alternate  rearrangement 
No.  2  :  Order  of  threads,  4,  3, 
6,  5,  8,  7,  2,  I. 

It  will  be  noted  that  No.  i 
is  the  twilled  hop-sack  and 
No.  2  the  Mayo  twill.  The 
student  should  experiment 
with  other  twiUs  upon  these 
lines  to  ascertain  the  possible 
variations. 

If  the  nature  of  all  the 
sateen  bases  is  fully  under¬ 
stood,  the  possible  sateen  re¬ 
arrangements  on  sateen  bases 
of  any  twill  will  be  realized. 
On  Design  Sheet  15B,  Nos. 
3  to  8,  all  possible  sateen 
rearrangements  of  a  15-end 
twill  are  given. 

Sateen  Twills 

These  are  based  upon  tl;ie 
various  sateens  and  may 
consequently  be  considered 
under  the  headings  of  Or¬ 
dinary  Sateen  Twills  and 
Upright  Sateen  Twills. 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS  127 

Ordinary  sateen  twills  must  be  based  upon  a  sateen 
presenting  a  twill  at  the  ordinary  angle  (45°).  Thus  in 
Design  Sheet  16,  No.  i,  the  8-sateen  is  the  basis,  being 
modified  into  the  Mayo  twill  and  twilled  hop-sack.  The 
following  order  of  construction  has  been  adopted  : 

1.  Mark  off  32  x  32  picks. 

2.  Insert  the  8-sateen  all  over — -i.e.,  sixteen  times. 


1  z 


1 


5 


6 


DESIGN  SHEET  I5B. — ILLUSTRATING  ALL  POSSIBLE  REARRANGEMENT  OF  A  15-THREAD  TWILL 
(The  number  at  the  left-hand  corner  of  each  design  is  the  number  counted) 


3.  Taking  the  direction  of  twill  giving  45°,  convert,  by 
addition,  into  any  style  of  weave  required,  in  twill 
form. 

Upright  sateen  twills  are  based  upon  the  upright  twill. 
No.  2  is  a  good  illustration  of  this,  which  has  been  worked 
out  in  stages  as  indicated  for  No.  i.  The  designer  must 
use  his  judgment  in  selecting  (a)  the  angle  of  twill  most 


128 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


P9inT-  PAPER- 


•  CISTM  • 


PLATE  5A. — ORDINARY  SATEEN  TWILL 


DESIGNING  OF  INTERFACINGS 


129 


suited  to  his  requirements,  {b)  the  type  of  weaves  into 
which  the  pure  sateen  is  converted. 

In  dealing  with  sateen  diapers  in  the  next  chapter 
(P-  133))  the  advantage  of  the  designer  selecting  the  con¬ 
ditions  best  suited  to  his  immediate  purpose  is  strongly 


^5A«>ED  •  ZA?9n  THE.  •  5  SATEIEM 
f TWILL  ( U9f(lG HT 

IDIJ^CTIOM  {TWILL 

Iwi^cTiori 


5 


wmi. 

Hsi 

jjACT  1 

m 

BA5EDZ4P9H 
THE  10  5ATEEM 


UESIGN  SHEET  l6.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  ORIGINATION  OF  SATEEN  TWILLS 


emphasized.  This  may  be  considered  as  one  of  the 
golden  rules  of  textile  design. 

The  student  may  now  with  advantage  study  the  repeti¬ 
tion  of  designs  illustrated  in  Design  Sheets  17 a  and  17B ; 
in  each  case  he  must  ask  himself — Why  does  repetition 
occur  as  indicated  ? 


9 


CHAPTER  VI 


SATEEN  FIGURES 

IF  the  student  has  worked  through  the  previous 
chapter  he  must  have  been  struck  with  the  many 
uses  of  the  sateen  arrangements,  and  it  may  have 
occurred  to  him  that  there  is  a  further  field  for  the  use 
of  sateens  in  the  origination  of  stripes,  checks,  figures,  etc. 
These  further  uses  may  well  be  studied  under  the  three 
following  headings  : 

I.  Sateen  stripes  and  checks. 

2.  Sateen  diapers. 

3.  Figures  arranged  in  sateen  order. 

Sateen  Stripes  and  Checks 

These  are  formed  by  inserting  any  suitable  sateen  over 
the  required  number  of  threads  and  picks,  and  then 
converting  it  into  two  or  more  weaves  in  either  stripe 
or  check  form  as  required. 

Design  Sheet  18,  No.  i,  has  been  formed  by  inserting 
8-sateen  over  32  threads  x  8  picks,  and  then  con- 

verting  16  of  the  threads  into  —  twill  and  16  into  Mayo 

twill  in  stripe  form.  There  is  thus  a  common  base 
binding  both  weaves  together,  as  indicated  in  the  solid 

[  130  ] 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


131 

dots,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  the  weaves  should  not  be 
put  together  in  any  relationship  other  than  this — the  two 
weaves  should  cut  if  possible,  i.e.,  at  the  point  of  juncture 


DE5lCiH 


CL9TH 


PLATE  5B. — UPRIGHT  SATEEN  TWILL 

there  should  not  be  any  unsightly  floats.*  If  the  designer 
can  do  better  without  the  base  he  need  not  use  it.  All 

*  The  student  must  realize  that  this  question  of  ‘  cutting  ’  is  all-im¬ 
portant  in  most  stripes  and  checks.  That  which  is  not  the  best  is 
wrong. 


9—2 


132 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


4 


DESIGN  SHEET  17A.*— ILLUSTKATiNG  THE  COMi^LETION  OF  WEAVE  EFFECTS 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


133 


the  systems  here  defined  are  to  aid,  not  restrict,  the  designer, 
and  he  must  use  his  judgment  in  such  matters  as 
this. 

No.  2  is  a  check  on  similar  lines  to  No.  i,  and  in  No.  3 
a  check  turned  diagonally  instead  of  horizontally  and 
vertically  is  given. 

The  Sateen  Diapers 

This  type  of  effect  is  originated  on  similar  lines  to 
sateen  checks,  but  the  diagonal  lines  presented  by  the 
various  sateens  in  their  pure  form  are  worked  upon.  In 
Fig.  50  the  various  divisions  of  space  formed  by  the 
various  sateens  are  shown,  and  in  Design  Sheet  19, 
No.  2,  a  simple  sateen  diaper  based  upon  the  5-sateen, 
while  No.  i  is  a  more  complex  diaper  based  upon  the 
i2-sateen.  No.  3  is  specially  interesting,  as  in  this  case 
weaves  have  been  selected  which  fit  the  angle  of  the 
diaper  twill  in  both  directions,  hence  perfect  cutting 
results.  The  young  designer  in  experimenting  would 
most  probably  have  selected  weaves  which  did  not  present 
this  coincidence,  but  the  experienced  designer  is  always 
ready  to  select  conditions  likely  to  yield  perfect,  or,  at 
least,  the  best  possible  results. 

If  the  designer  wishes  to  demark  the  sateen  dividing  lines 
he  should  adopt  the  method  shown  in  No.  4  (not  No.  5),  in 
which  horizontal  lines  are  developed  in  weft  and  vertical 
lines  in  warp — i.e.,  he  must  think  in  the  cloth  and  not  on 
point-paper. 

Design  Sheet  iqa,  again,  shows  a  variety  of  a  very  sug¬ 
gestive  type — in  fact,  there  is  no  end  to  this  style  of  design. 


134 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


DESIGN  SHEET  17B. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  COMPLETION  OF  WEAVE  EFFECTS 


Figures  arranged  in  Sateen  Order 

It  is  not  our  intention  to  deal  in  any  sense  with  figured 
fabrics  in  the  present  treatise,  but  there  are  a  number  of 
small  figure  effects  in  general  use  which  are  really  nothing 


SATEEN  FIGURES  135 


more  or  less  than  figured  weaves  ;  these  must  be  con¬ 
sidered  here. 

In  Design  Sheet  20,  A  is  a  small  figure,  and  alongside 


•CL9TH  •  •  P91MT-  FAFEPC- 


PLATE  6. — (l)  CHECK  WITH  SATEEN  BASE  ;  (2)  DIAPER  WITH  SATEEN  BASE 

this  same  figure  is  arranged  in  sateen  order.  The  advan¬ 
tage  of  such  an  arrangement  is  that  even  distribution  is 
insured  ;  the  disadvantage  from  the  designer’s  point  of  view 
is  that  practically  in  one  repeat  of  the  design  there  are 


DESIGN  SHEET  t8. — ILLUSTRATING  SATEEN  STKITES  AND  CHECKS 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


137 


five  repeats  of  the  figure — i.e.,  that  the  figuring  capacity 
of  a  Jacquard  (say,  a  300)  is  reduced  to  1/5  (60  threads). 
But  as  this  system  of  design  is  chiefly  devoted  to  pro¬ 


ducing  small  weave  effects  for  use  as  ground  weaves  in 
figured  fabrics,  the  disadvantages  are  practically  nil. 

The  following  treatment  will  explain  the  method  of 


FIG.  50.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  DIVIDING  UP  OF  A  GIVEN  SPACE  IN  SATEEN  ORDER  FOR 


138 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


working.  Design  Sheet  20,  Fig.  A,  is  to  be  arranged  in 
5-sateen  order  on  30  threads  x  30  picks. 

I.  Divide  the  given  space  in  both  warp  and  weft  direc- 


DESIGN  SHEET  19.  — ILLUSTRATING  SATEEN  DIAPERS 


tions  into  the  necessary  number  of  sections  (30-^-5  =  6) — 
i.e.,  5  blocks  of  6  x  6  in  each  direction. 

2.  Select  positions  for  the  required  number  of  figures 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


139 


(five),  counting  as  for  the  sateen,  but  in  sections  of  6x6 
as  one. 

3.  FiU  the  figure  into  each  sateen  position  thus  selected 
in  the  same  relative  manner.  These  stages  are  all  repre- 


DESIGN  SHEET  19A.— ILLUSTRATING  SATEEN  DIAPERS 
Divisions  based  upon  the  8-sateen  ground  base  and  sateen 


sented,  while  No.  3A,  illustrates  the  wrong  filling  in  of  the 
figure.  j 

No.  4  in  Design  Sheet  20A,  illustrates  a  figure  in 
4-sateen  order,  with  a  ground  weave  suitable  for  cutting 
well  with  the  figure. 


140 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Reversing  Figures  in  Sateen  Order 

The  8-sateen  will  give  four  figures  in  one  direction  and 
four  in  the  opposite  direction.  Such  sateens  as  the  5  or 


3  A 


DESIGN  SHEET  20.— II.LUSTRATING  THE  ARRANGING  OF  FIGURES  IN  SATEEN  ORDER 


7  arrangements  must  be  repeated  twice  or  four  times. 
Figures  may  be  placed  in  four  or  even  more  positions  if 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


141 

required,*  but  this  does  not  concern  us  here,  being  an 
attribute  of  figure  designing. 

In  reversing  figures,  the  figure  must  be  turned  upon  its 
centre,  or  else  it  will  encroach  upon  the  space  of  its  neigh- 

5 


e  & 


h- 


DESIGN  SHEET  20A. — ILLUSTKATING  THE  ARRANGING  OF  FIGURES  IN  SATEEN  OltDER 

hour,  leaving  a  corresponding  blank  space  in  the  design. 
The  following  calculation  for  reversing  two  figures  ex¬ 
plains  all  that  is  necessary  at  this  stage : 

If  e  e'.  Design  Sheet  20A,  are  two  figures  occupying 

*  An  interesting  exercise  here  will  be  for  the  student  to  arrange  a 
flower-head  at  five  different  inclinations  for  5-sateen  arrangement. 


142 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


a  threads  and  h  picks,  then  the  two  figures  occupy  a  x  & 
small  squares,  and  each  figure  occupies  {a  x  b)-h-2  =  c 
small  squares. 

Then  for  y-sateen  order — 

cxy  =  d  small  squares  occupied  by  the  full  design,  and 
v^t^  =  the  number  of  threads  and  picks  the  design  is 
on,  if  on  the  square. 

Hence  the  following  formula,  which  to  young  students 
looks  terrible,  but  which  is  simply  a  complete  statement 
of  the  above  : 

X  X  ^  =  threads  and  picks  which  the  full 
design  will  require. 

Figures  e  e'  work  out  as  follows  ; 


(12  X  I2)-i-2  =  72 
72  X  8  =  576 

\^576  =  24  threads  by  24  picks  for  the  full  design. 
Or  put  as  the  complete  formula  : 


'\/ (i2Xi2)X^  =  24  threads  by  24  picks. 

But  all  figures  are  not  on  the  same  number  of  threads 
as  picks.  Design  5,  for  example,  is  on  16  threads  by 
32  picks.  (See  Design  Sheet  20B.) 

If  a  and  h  are  different  numbers,  then  d  must  be  appor¬ 
tioned  out  to  threads  and  picks  as  follows  : 

As  b  :  a  :  :  d  :  X  and  =  threads  for  full  design. 
As  a  :  b  ::  d  :  x'  and  spicks  for  full  design. 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


143 


Thus,  the  final  formula  fitting  all  cases  is  : 

/ ax  h  a  ,,  j 

V - xv'Xt  =  threads. 

^2  '  0 

Vaxb  b  .  , 

-—xyx-=:  picks. 

Apply  these  formulas  for  Design  Sheet  20B  ; 

\/ X  32  X  8  X  16  _  threads  for  full  design. 

2  X  32 

\/  ^  2x^6  ^  ~  picks  for  full  design. 

A  curious  point  may  now  be  noted  :  If  the  figures  in  the 
second  stage,  Design  Sheet  20B,  be  made  rather  larger, 
they  do  not  overlap,  but  strictly  maintain  their  indepen¬ 
dence.  If,  however,  these  enlarged  figures  be  rearranged 
according  to  the  above  formulas  they  will  overlap*  and 
consequently  a  defective  arrangement  results.  There 
seems  to  be  here  an  analogy  with  certain  scientific  induc¬ 
tions,  which  may  be  true,  say,  500  times,  but  untrue 
the  501st  time.  (See  Jevons’  ‘  Elementary  Logic.’) 

Two  other  points  must  here  be  noted  :  (a)  the  relation¬ 
ship  of  a  to  a'  (Design  Sheet  20A)  must  be  designed  by 
the  student  prior  to  working  out  this  calculation  ;  {b)  in 
cases  where  weft  flush  figures  are  thrown  upon  a  plain 
ground  it  is  necessary  sometimes  to  move  some  of  the 
figures  slightly  in  order  to  make  the  plain  ground  cut 
with  the  edge  of  the  figure.  On  Design  Sheet  20c  is 
given  a  good  example  of  this  class.  All  possible  reversed 
arrangements  for  a  figure  in  5-sateen  order  are  illustrated 
*  The  student  should  prove  this  experimentally. 


144 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


SATEEN  FIGURES 


145 


on  this  design  sheet  and  on  Design  Sheet  20D  and  20E, 
from  which  the  possibilities  of  other  sateen  arrangements 
may  be  gauged. 

If  the  student  has  experimented  with  and  thoroughly 
comprehended  all  the  foregoing  methods  of  weave 
origination,  he  will  have  laid  the  foundations  for  success 
in  whatever  particular  branch  of  textile  designing  he 
ultimately  works. 


10 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 

WHILE  the  student  has  been  studying  the 
various  methods  of  weave  origination  the 
question  has  arisen  in  his  mind*  as  to  how 
these  effects  are  to  be  produced  in  the  loom.  ‘Tackle 
one  thing  at  a  time’  is  a  good  maxim,  so  that  the 
question  of  ‘  drafting  ’  has  been  properly  omitted  in 
Chapters  V.  and  VI.  But  the  question  of  ways  and  means 
cannot  be  ignored,  and  it  is  now  necessary  to  think  of  the 
actual  production  of  weave  structures  in  the  loom. 

As  explained  in  Chapter  II. ,f  there  must  be  perfect 
coincidence  between  the  number  of  threads  in  the  warp, 
mails  per  inch,  and  dents  per  inch  in  the  reed,  in  order 
that  the  cloth  may  be  woven  with  the  least  possible 
friction.  But  from  the  weave  point  of  view  the  important 
matter  is  the  number  of  shafts  required.  Consequently, 
there  are  often  calculations  to  work  out  for  gears 
and  certain  interesting  relationships  to  estimate  and 
arrange  for.  Take,  for  example,  the  factors  influencing 
the  direction  of  the  twill  in  an  ordinary  dobby  loom. 
*  Refer  to  p.  24. 

t  The  student  is  recommended  to  re-read  the  part  referring  to  this 
in  Chapter  II.,  pp.  19  to  27. 


[  146  ] 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


147 


DESIGN  SHEET  20C. — ILLUSTRATING  A  FIGURE  IN  5-SATEEN  ORDER  (FOUR  TIMES  REVERSED, 

20  figures) 


These  are  (i)  the  pegging  of  the  lags  ;*  (2)  the  direction 
of  the  draft  in  the  healds  ;  (3)  the  direction  in  which  the 
card  cylinder  revolves ;  and  (4)  upon  whether  the  loom  is 

*  In  the  case  of  Jacquard  (unless  there  is  a  cast-out)  the  cards  can 
be  turned  inside  out,  there  not  being  the  necessity  of  arranging  or  even 
lacing  the  cards  one  way  or  the  other. 


10 — 2 


148 


STUDY  OF  textile;  design 


a  right  or  left  hand  loom.  These  conditions  wiU  be  under¬ 
stood  by  reference  to  Fig.  51.* 


DESIGN  SHEET  20D. — ILLUSTRATING  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  FIGURE  IN  S'SATEEN  ORDER 
(four  times  REVERSED  AND  MOVED  FOR  PLAIN  GROUND) 


If  the  student  thoroughly  understands  the  foregoing 
he  will  now  have  little  difficulty  in  understanding  what 
is  meant  by  drafting. 

*  The  student,  while  reading  this  and  other  paragraphs,  should  en¬ 
deavour  to  see  the  same  in  his  ‘  mind’s  eye.’ 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


149 


DESIGN  SHEET  20E. — ILLUSTRATING  A  FIGURE  IN  S-SATEEN  ORDER  (TWICE  REVERSED, 

10  figures) 


150 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Definition  of  Drafting 

In  its  simplest  sense,  as  already  explained,  drafting 
simply  means  the  drawing  on  to  the  same  shaft  [i.e., 
through  mails  on  the  same  shaft)  of  all  those  threads 
in  a  warp  which  are  to  work  the  same  throughout  the 
pattern  and  piece — i.e.,  to  be  lifted  over  and  left  under 
the  same  picks.  It  is  also  obvious  that  the  shafts  must 
have  mails  on  where  required  ;  hence  the  necessity  for 
drafting  and  gear  calculations. 

On  referring  to  Design  Sheet  21*  it  will  be  realized  that 
most  elaborate  effects  may  be  produced  by  a  few  simple 
threads  combined  in  various  ways,  for  in  this  example 
there  are,  as  shown,  only  9  threads  or  orders  of  working, 
but  as  here  arranged  they  give  an  effect  on  56  threads. f 
If  the  student  will  think  this  out  he  will  come  to  the 
following  conclusions : 

1.  There  must  be  as  many  heald-shafts  as  there  are 
orders  of  threads — viz.  :  9. 

2.  That  these  heald-shafts  must  work  all  the  threads 
in  a  given  warp,  but  the  threads  need  not  be  drawn 
‘  straight-gate  ’ — i.e.,  the  ist  thread  on  to  the  ist  shaft, 
2nd  on  to  2nd,  3rd  on  to  3rd,  etc. — but  that,  having  decided 
how  the  representative  9  threads  shall  be  worked  by 
the  9  shafts — i.e.,  the  ‘pegging  plan’  for  the  shafts — then 
each  thread  of  the  warp  must  be  drawn  upon  the  particu¬ 
lar  shaft  which  works  as  this  thread  is  required  to  work. 

There  is  really  nothing  more  in  drafting  than  this,  but 
unfortunately  for  the  student  questions  on  drafting  will 

*  This  example  is  from  a  work  the  title  of  which  is  unknown  to  the 
writer. 

t  The  variation  in  the  picks  is  only  limited  by  the  number  of  lags. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


151 


arise  in  practice  in  at  least  five  ways  (see  Design  Sheet 
21A),  viz.  : 


£a^.  ii^y. 


(S 


:s 


s: 


xz':sris-' 


IH1 


mi 


s;=s;is^- 

Aa-..Na 


c&t& 


FIG.  51.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  LAG-PEGGING  POSITION  AND  WORKING 
OF  THE  DOBBY  AND  THE  DRAFT  ON  THE  TWILL  OF  THE  RESULTANT  CLOTHS 


1.  Having  given  the  required  design  and  draft,  supply 
the  pegging  plan  (No.  i). 

2.  Having  given  the  required  design  and  pegging  plan, 
supply  the  draft  (No.  2). 


152 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


3.  Having  given  the  pegging  plan  and  draft,  supply 
the  design  (No.  3). 

4.  Having  given  the  required  design,  supply  the  draft 
and  pegging  plan  (No.  4). 


ESIGN  SHEET  21. — ILLUSTRATING  DRAFTING 


5.  Having  given  the  draft  as  already  in  the  loom,  to 
produce  a  series  of  suitable  designs  with  their  necessary 
pegging  plans. 

It  will  be  well  for  the  student  to  realize  here  that  to  him 
the  4th  and  5th  are  by  far  the  most  difficult.  Most  young 
designers  easily  become  capable  of  working  out  defined 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


153 


relationships  such  as  the  ist,  2nd,  and  3rd,  but  when 
they  have  to  select  their  own  conditions  the  difficulties  to 
them  are  much  greater,  although  possibly  easier  to  the 
experienced  designer.  For  example,  the  design  in  Design 
Sheet  21B  may  be  'produced  in  the  loom  in  the  two 


DESIGN  SHEET  2IA. — ILLUSTRATING  VARIOUS  PROBLEMS  IN  DRAFTING 
The  parts  in  black  are  given,  the  parts  in  dots  are  to  he  thought  out 

ways  shown  ;  one  designer  would  probably  select  one  way 
and  another  another  way,  but  so  far  as  the  student  is  con¬ 
cerned  the  point  to  note  is  that  he  should  endeavour  to 
realize  all  ways  and  select  the  one  best  suited  to  the  condi¬ 
tions  under  which  he  must  work.  If  the  student  thoroughly 


154 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


UESIGN  SHEET  21 B.  — ILLUSTRATING  TWO  SYSTEMS  OF  DRAFTING  A  THREAD-AND-THREAD 
COMBINATION  ALONG  WITH  THE  NECESSARY  PEGGING  PLANS 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


155 


studies  these  examples  he  should  never  be  troubled  with 
any  drafting,  however  difficult  such  may  be.* 

But  in  practice  he  must  go  further  than  this — i.e.,  he 
must  decide  upon  a  depinite  system  of  working  out  his  drafts 
and  pegging  plans  and  always  keep  to  this  system.  It  is 
necessary  to  emphasize  this  because  such  a  simple  matter 
may  mean  hundreds  of  pounds  profit  or  loss,  as  explained 
in  Chapter  IT,  p.  ig. 

A  question,  then,  of  some  importance  is,  How  are  these 
drafts  and  pegging  plans  to  be  indicated  ?  Four  methods 
of  indicating  drafts  are  shown  in  Fig.  52. 

In  A  the  shafts  are  supposed  to  be  numbered  i,  2,  3, 
etc.,  and  all  threads  i  are  drawn  on  shaft  i,  all  threads  2 
are  drawn  on  shaft  2,  and  so  on. 

In  B — usually  styled  the  English  system — the  threads 
are  represented  as  passing  from  the  cloth  through  the 
healds  (plan  view),  a  cross  indicating  upon  which  par¬ 
ticular  heald  each  thread  is  drawn. 

In  C — usually  styled  the  German  system — the  threads 
are  supposed  to  be  hanging  from  the  warp-beam  ready 
for  drawing  on  to  the  healds  (see  Fig.  52),  a  cross  indicating 
upon  which  particular  heald-shaft  each  thread  is  to  be 
drawn. 

All  these  systems  are  useful — especially  to  the  student, 
as  he  then  clearly  realizes  what  he  is  doing — but  as  the 
point-paper  method  D  is  so  much  more  handy,  it  is 
almost  universally  employed.  In  the  mill,  however,  the 
definite  arrangement  of  pegging  plan,  draft,  and  design 
is  rarely  thought  out,  but  a  definite  order  of  designing, 

*  The  student  will  also  find  it  good  practice  to  reproduce  the  design 
from  the  draft  and  pegging  plan,  as  indicated  in  on  Design  Sheets 
21B  and  21C. 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


156 


drafting,  and  pegging  arranged  and  always  kept  to.  In 
Figs.  28  and  28A  (pp.  46,  47)  the  pegging  for  two  designs  on 
different  styles  of  lags  is  illustrated,  the  instructions  being : 


a. 


2‘t<324»313l5 
1324^132't  13/3 


3. 


FIG.  52. — THE  VARIOUS  SYSTEMS  OF  INDICATING  THE  DRAFT 


Peg  White. — Always  commencing  at  the  top  and  with 
the  first,  that  is  the  top,  lag.  Simple  conditions  such  as 
these  should  always  be  arranged  for  if  possible. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


157 


Calculations  for  Gears 

In  the  foregoing  drafts  it  has  always  been  supposed 
that  if  a  thread  were  to  be  drawn  upon  a  given  shaft  there 
would  be  a  mail  for  it.  It  is  obviously  the  designer’s  work 


DESIGN  SHEET  aiC.  — ILLUSTRATING  TWO  SYSTEMS  OF  DRAFTING  EFFECT  A 
In  I  with  an  unequal  number  of  mails  per  shaft ;  in  2  with  an  equal  number  of  mails  per  shaft 

to  design  his  gears  so  that  there  is  the  required  number  of 
mails  on  each  shaft — neither  more  nor  less — and  that 
these  mails  are  in  the  right  position  for  the  threads  to 
pass  through. 

An  interesting  example  illustrating  these  points  is 
given  on  Design  Sheet  21A,  in  which  there  are  only  six 


158 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


orders  of  working  the  threads,  so  that  a  loom  with  six 
tappets  would  readily  produce  this  pattern  upon  36 
threads. 

In  the  calculation  for  the  mails  per  shaft  (i)  the  set, 
and  (2)  the  draft,  are  the  deciding  factors.  The  draft 
is  already  supplied,  but  the  set  has  yet  to  be  decided 
on.  Now,  if  72t  breads  per  inch  be  taken  as  the  set  the 
draft  will  repeat  exactly  twice  per  inch  {i.e.,  72-4-36=2 
repeats),  and  the  calculation  will  be  easy  ;  while  if,  say, 
64  threads  per  inch  be  taken  there  will  be  if  repeats  of 
the  draft  per  inch,  and  it  will  be  better  to  work  out  the 
calculation  for  the  full  width  of  the  healds,  thus  avoiding 
fractions.  Of  course,  the  designer  should  arrange  his 
gears  on  the  first  method  if  possible,  but  he  is  not  always 
his  own  master. 

Example  i. — Calculate  the  mails  per  shaft  for  design 
and  draft  on  Design  Sheet  21  a,  for  72  threads  per  inch. 


(1) 

(2) 


72-4“36=  2  repeats  of  the  draft  per  inch. 
2  X  10  =  20  mails  per  inch  on  shaft  No.  i 
2X  4=  8  „  „  „  „  2 

2X  4=  8  „  „  „  ,,  3 

2X10=20  ,,  ,,  „  -  „  4 

2X  4=  8  „  „  „  „  5 

2X  4=  8  „  „  „  „  6 


72  mails  per  inch  on  6  shafts. 


This  gives  the  number  of  mails  per  inch  per  shaft,  but 
not  the  posUion  of  the  mails.  In  cases  like  this,  where 
the  pattern  repeats  on  -i-  inch  there  is  no  need  to  knit  the 
healds  to  pattern.  To  distribute  the  mails  evenly  will 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


159 


facilitate  the  knitting  operation,  reduce  the  cost,  and 
not  interfere  with  the  practical  weaving  in  the  least. 
In  special  cases,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  specify  to 
the  heald-maker  not  only  the  number  of  mails  per  shaft, 
but  also  their  exact  position,*  which,  once  obtained  in  the 
knitting,  must  be  maintained  in  the  ‘  donning  ’  on  to  the 
heald-shafts. 

If  the  mails  per  shaft  for  a  given  width  are  required, 
the  following  will  be  the  order  of  procedure  : 

Example  2. — Calculate  the  mails  per  shaft  for  draft  on 
Design  Sheet  21c,  No.  i,  for  64  threads  per  inch,  48 
inches  wide. 

(1)  64  X  48  =  3,072  ends  in  the  warp. 

(2)  3,072-4-24=  128  rep’eats  of  the  draft  in  the  full 

width. 

(3)  128  X  8  =  1,024  mails  in  shaft  No.  i 

128  X  4=  512  „  „  „  2 

128 X  8=1,024  „  „  „  3 

128X  4=  512  „  „  „  4 

3,072  mails  on  4  shafts  in  48  inches. 

The  importance  of  arranging  drafts  for  equal  mails  per 
inch  is  such  that  an  example  is  given  in  No.  2  (Design 
Sheet  2ic),  illustrating  how,  by  the  addition  of  two 
shafts,  an  equal  number  of  mails  per  shaft  may  be 
arranged  for. 

Orders  to  the  Heald-Maker 

The  designer  must  remember  that  the  heald-maker  does 
not  know  what  the  healds  he  is  knitting  are  required  for, 
*  Refer  to  the  writer’s  work  on  ‘  Pattern  Analysis.’ 


i6o 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


therefore  the  two  foregoing  examples  should  be  sum¬ 
marized  in  the  order  as  follows  : 

Example  i. — i  set  of  gears,  2  shafts,  each  shaft 
20  mails  per  inch,  x  inches  wide. 

I  set  of  gears,  4  shafts,  each  shaft  8  mails  per  inch, 
X  inches  wide. 

Example  2. — i  set  of  gears,  2  shafts,  each  shaft 
1,024  mails  in  48  inches. 

I  set  of  gears,  2  shafts,  each  shaft  512  mails  in 
48  inches.* 

Attention  has  already  been  directed  to  the  advantages 
to  be  gained  by  the  designer  selecting  suitable  conditions. 
Design  Sheet  21B  illustrates  the  advantages  to  be  gained. 
In  No.  I  a  complex  draft  with  no  discernible  order  is 
given,  along  with  a  pegging  plan  of  an  equally  mixed 
appearance.  On  the  other  hand,  in  No.  2  the  same 
design  is  drafted  intelligently.  A  well-marked  order  is 
now  discernible  in  the  drafting,  which  the  workman  may 
follow,  and  a  well-defined  pegging  plan  is  also  obtained, 
which  the  weaving  overlooker  or  lag-pegger  can  glance 
over  and  be  satisfied  as  to  correctness. 

The  heald  calculation  for  this  draft  works  out  as  follows ; 

Example  3. — Calculate  the  mails  per  shaft  for  Design 
Sheet  21B  for  80  threads  per  inch,  70  inches  wide  (to 
weave,  say,  68  inches  of  cloth). 

(1)  70  X  80  =  5,600  ends  in  the  warp. 

(2)  5,600—40=  140  repeats  of  the  draft  in  the  full 

width  of  the  piece. 

*  For  the  full  ‘heald  order  form’  refer  to  Chapter  II.,  p.  25. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING 


i6i 


(3) 


Proof : 


140  X  5  ~  700  mails  in  70  inches  for  each 
shaft,  I  to  4  ( see  draft  No.  2) . 
140x4  =  560  mails  in  70  inches  for  each 
shaft,  5  to  9. 

700x4  shafts  =  2,800  mails  on  shafts  i  to  4 
560x5  „  =2,800  „  „  5  to  9 


5,600  mails  on  9  shafts. 

In  crammed  stripes,  double  cloths,  etc.,  difficulties 
occur  in  arranging  and  ordering  gears,  but  if  the  student 
has  thoroughly  mastered  the  foregoing  he  will  have  little 
trouble  in  overcoming  any  drafting  difficulties  in  what¬ 
ever  form  they  occur. 


Casting  Out 

A  set  of  gears  once  knitted  cannot  be  adopted  to  every 
variety  of  pattern.  Thus  the  gears  for  Examples  i  and 
2  (p.  160)  will  only  produce  patterns  similar,  or  practically 
similar,  to  that  given  and  of  the  indicated  set.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  gears  for  Example  3  may  be  divided  into 
two  sets — viz.  : 

5  shafts  giving  40  threads  per  inch,  and 

4  55  ? )  4^  5  j  55  j  5 

so  that  these  gears  may  be  doubly  useful  as  compared 
with  those  for  Examples  i  and  2. 

As  already  explained,  in  ordering  gea.s,  if  possible  the 
same  number  of  mails  per  inch  per  shaft  should  be  arranged 
for,  even  if  this  necessitates  some  alterations  in  the  de¬ 
signing.  But  even  if  this  is  arranged  for,  it  may  be 
contended  that  the  gears  are  only  suited  for  the  style  (or, 


II 


i62 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


rather,  set)  for  which  they  were  originally  ordered.  Now, 
this  is  only  partially  true,  for  although  a  set  of  gears 
for,  say,  64  threads  per  inch  will  not  weave  a  cloth  with 
more  than  64  threads  per  inch,  nevertheless  they  may  be 
cast  out  to  weave  anything  under  64  threads  per  inch. 
Again,  although  a  set  of  gears  for  16  shafts  will  not  pro¬ 
duce  patterns  on  24  or  32,  etc. — shafts  under  normal 
conditions — nevertheless  they  may  be  ‘  cast  out,’  or, 
rather,  ‘  cast  down  ’  to  weave  any  weave  upon  a  less 
number  than  16  threads. 

From  these  two  cases  it  will  be  realized  that  there  are 
two  methods  of  ‘  casting  out  ’ — viz.  : 

{a)  By  casting  out  or  taking  away  heald-shafts. 

{b)  By  casting  out  mails — i.e.,  leaving  them  empty 
without  threads  through.* 

The  student  will  readily  realize  the  conditions  under 
which  one  or  both  of  the  foregoing  methods  may  be 
applied  to  advantage  from  the  following  simple  example  : 

Example. — In  what  way  may  a  set  of  gears  for  16  shafts 
giving  64  threads  per  inch  be  cast  out,  and  what  will  be 
the  result  of  such  casting-out  with  reference  to  (a)  set, 
(h)  weave  capacity. 

64-f”i6  =  4  mails  per  inch  per  shaft. 

I.  Casting  off  Shafts  and  the  Effect  on  the  Set : 

Employing  i6  shafts  for  2,  4,  8,  and  16  thread  weaves,  the  set  will 
be  64  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  15  shafts  for  3,  5,  and  15  thread  weaves,  the  set  will 
be  60  threads  per  inch. 


*  This  is  not  advisable  unless  absolutely  necessary,  as  empty  mails 
wear  quickly. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  DRAFTING  163 

Employing  14  shafts  for  2,  7,  and  14  thread  weaves,  the  set  will 
be  56  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  13  shafts  for  13-thread  weave,  the  set  will  be  52  threads 
per  inch. 

Employing  12  shafts  for  2,  3,  4,  6,  and  12  thread  weaves,  the  set 
will  be  48  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  1 1  shafts  for  1 1 -thread  weave,  the  set  will  be  44  threads 
per  inch. 

Employing  10  shafts  for  2,  5,  and  10  thread  weaves,  the  set  will  be 
40  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  9  shafts  for  3  and  9  thread  weaves,  the  set  will  be 
36  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  8  shafts  for  2,  4,  and  8  thread  weaves,  the  set  will  be 
32  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  7  shafts  for  7-thread  weave,  the  set  will  be  28  threads 
per  inch. 

Employing  6  shafts  for  2,  3,  and  6  thread  weaves,  the  set  will  be 
24  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  5  shafts  for  5-thread  weave,  the  set  will  be  20  threads 
per  inch. 

Employing  4  shafts  for  2  and  4  thread  weaves,  the  set  will  be  16 
threads  per  inch. 

Employing  3  shafts  for  3- thread  weave,  the  set  will  be  12  threads 
per  inch. 

Employing  2  shafts  for  2-thread  weave,  the  set  will  be  8  threads 
per  inch. 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
set  of  16  shafts  may  be  split  up  as  follows  : 

Split  into  2  sets  of  8  shafts,  the  set  being  32  threads  per  inch 

)5  4  ))  4  ))  5)  tb  ,,  ,, 

»  ^  2  »  ))  ^  ))  )) 

.  f  I  set  of  2  shafts,  the  set  being  8  threads  per  inch 
Split  intol  „  .  ,  , ,  . 

I^and  I  ,,  14  ))  yj  5^  »  j? 

/  I  ))  4  n  ))  tb  ,,  ,, 

”  l^and  I  ,,  12  ,,  ,,  48  ,,  ,, 

and  so  on,  so  that  it  is  evident  that  in  ordering  a  set  of 
gears  attention  should  not  only  be  given  to  the  set  as  a 
whole,  but  also  to  the  way  in  which  it  may  be  split  up  for 
a  variety  of  weaves  and  sets. 


II — 2 


164 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


2.  Casting  out  Mails  and  the  Effect  on  the  Weave  : 

Employing  16  shafts  and  filling-up  the  mails  completely  gives  64 
threads  per  inch. 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casting-out  i  gate  and  drawing-in  i  gate 
gives  32  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casiing-out  i  gate  and  drawing-in  2  gates 
gives  42I  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casting-out  i  gate  and  drawing-in  3  gates 
gives  48  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casting-out  i  gate  and  drawing-in  4  gates 
gives  5ii  threads  per  inch. 

Again,  working  towards  fewer  threads  per  inch  : 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casting-out  2  gates  and  drawing-in  i  gate 
gives  21^  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casting-out  3  gates  and  drawing-in  i  gate 
gives  16  threads  per  inch. 

Employing  16  shafts  and  casting-out  4  gates  and  drawing-in  i  gate 
gives  124  threads  per  inch. 

Or,  again,  the  gears  may  be  looked  at  entirely  from 
the  ‘  set  ’  point  of  view,  thus  : 


64  threads  per  inch  requires  16  shafts 


60 

99 

IS 

99 

56 

97 

99 

14 

99 

52 

91 

99 

13 

99 

48 

99 

99 

12 

99 

and  so  on. 

This  one  example  put  in  various  forms  wiU  be  quite 
sufficient  to  impress  the  student  with  the  possible  varia¬ 
tion,  and  having  realized  these  thoroughly  as  applied  in 
one  typical  case,  he  should  have  no  difficulty  in  applying 
the  same  principles  in  any  other  cases.  In  Fig.  54  (p.  156) 
the  casting-out  of  four  shafts  is  graphically  represented. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE  STRUCTURE  AND  CORRECT  USE  OF 
YARNS 

IT  may  seem  to  the  student  who  has  thoroughly  studied 
the  foregoing  chapters  that  there  is  little  more  to 
learn  respecting  the  manufacture  of  simple  fabrics.* 
But  success  in  the  textile  industries  is  built  upon  details ; 
everyone  duly  attends  to  the  main  points,  but  true  genius 
— defined  as  the  art  of  taking  infinite  pains — is  now¬ 
adays  necessary  to  insure  success.  Therefore  no  apology 
is  necessary  for  referring  the  student  back  to  the  materials 
and  yarns  from  which  he  is  to  build  his  cloths.  He  must 
fully  realize  that  a  brief  acquaintance  with  yarns  is  almost 
worse  than  useless,  and  that  a  full  and  complete  acquaint¬ 
ance  with  the  following  points  is  absolutely  necessary — 
(a)  The  materials  of  which  the  yarns  are  constructed. 
(6)  The  structure  or  arrangement  of  the  fibres  in 
the  yams. 

(c)  The  type  of  weave  structure  to  which  each  type 
of  yarn  is  adapted,  or 

The  type  of  yarn  structure  to  which  each  type 
of  weave  is  adapted. 

*  Excepting,  of  course,  the  finishing  of  the  same,  which  is  not 
touched  on  here. 


[  165  ] 


i66 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


{d)  The  weaving  capabilities  of  various  yarns. 

{e)  The  finish  to  which  each  style  of  yarn  adapts  itself. 

These,  and  many  other  minor  points,  must  aU  be  con- 


A 


B 


C 


D 


FIG.  54. — ILLUSTRATING  CASTING-OUT  IN  GEARS 

A,  four  shafts  drawn  straight  gate  and  filled  up  ;  B,  every  other  gate  cast  out ; 

C,  every  third  gate  cast  out ;  D,  two  shafts  cast  off 

sidered  by  the  manufacturer  who  would  work  to  the 
greatest  advantage. 

Respecting  {a),  it  is  not  only  necessary  that  the  designer 


CORRECT  USE  OF  YARNS 


167 


should  know  whether  to  employ  wool,  cotton,  or  silk 
yarns,  but  whether  to  employ  English,*  English  half- 
bred,  Colonial  cross-bred,  Cheviot,  mixed  breed.  South 
Down  or  botany  wool  yarns  ;  American,  Egyptian,  or  Sea 
Island  cotton  yarns  ;  thrown  silk,  spun  silk,  mercerized 
cotton,  or  artificial  silk  yarns. 

Respecting  (b),  it  is  not  only  necessary  that  the  designer 
should  know  exactly  the  right  material  to  employ,  but 
he  must  also  know  whether  the  right  material  is  rightly 
spun  for  his  purpose.  In  making  bright  serges,  for 
example,  he  must  employ  a  yarn  composed  of  English 
wool  (Lincoln,  Leicester,  etc.),  spun  on  the  flyer  and  noi 
on  the  cap  frame.  If  making  lustre  goods  there  must  be 
as  little  twist  in  as  the  yarn  will  weave  with  ;  again,  in 
making  perfect  lustre  goods  he  must  employ  an  Egyptian 
cotton  yarn  for  the  warp  spun  on  the  flyer  frame,  and 
gassed,  to  obtain  as  clear  a  thread  as  possible,  and  so  on. 

Respecting  (c),  those  who  have  experimented  with 
weaves  know  that — quite  irrespective  of  the  yarns  em¬ 
ployed — some  tend  to  give  a  sharp  crisp  handle  and  some  a 
soft  handle.  Again,  some  are  specially  liable  to  slipping, 
and  must  be  employed  very  carefully  with  soft  bright 
yarns  (see  pp.  81  to  85).  Thus  it  is  evident  that  material, 
yarn  structure  and  cloth  structure  should  be  selected  to 
favour  the  development  of  the  exact  style  of  finished 
fabric  required. 

Respecting  (d),  the  chief  point  to  be  noted  is  that  of 
economy.  It  would  be  false  economy — or,  rather,  no 
ecomony  at  all — to  select  yarns  for  warp  which  would  not 

*  The  question  of  employing  ‘  lustre  ’  or  ‘  demi-lustre  ’  for  examples 
must  be  considered  with  special  reference  to  the  cost  of  the  resultant 
cloth. 


i68 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


weave  or  would  weave  indifferently.  The  designer  must 
remember  that  cost  of  weaving  is  a  very  marked  item, 
especially  when  cheap  materials  are  employed* 

Respecting  {e),  little  can  here  be  noted,  but  the  designer 
must  fully  and  completely  realize  that  if  he  requires  a 
special  finish  upon  his  goods  he  must  lead  up  to  that 
finish,  commencing  with  his  selection  of  raw  material, 
following  on  with  the  yarn  structure,  the  weave  structure, 
and  even  the  weaving.  It  is  rarely  that  mistakes  made 
in  the  preliminary  processes  can  be  rectified  in  the  finish¬ 
ing  operations.  The  designer  must  from  beginning  to  end 
bear  in  mind  the  cloth  required,  and  adapt  all  his  selections 
of  materials  and  processes  to  the  attainment  of  this  end. 

The  student  must  be  impressed  with  the  necessity  of 
continually  handling  and  noticing  the  effects  various 
yarns,  weaves,  etc.,  produce  in  the  resultant  cloth  ;  he 
must  record  these  e.xperiences  in  some  convenient  form, 
and  upon  his  experiences — well  digested — he  must  base  his 
practice. 

A  convenient  form  of  registering  yarns  is  provided  in 
the  yarn-book  designed  by  the  writer  to  supply  a  long- 
felt  want.  This  book  allows  an  actual  specimen  of  the 
yarn  to  be  entered  in  convenient  form,  and  along  with 
this  the  ‘  Counts  and  Material,’  ‘  Spinner  ’  or  ‘  Merchant- 
ing  Firm,’  ‘  Cost,’  and  ‘  Uses  ’  are  supplied. 

If  along  with  such  a  book  the  student  can  arrange  a 
pattern-book  illustrating  the  effect  of  given  yarns  in  the 
finished  cloth,  so  much  the  better. 

*  The  speed  of  the  loom  is  a  factor  which  must  here  be  considered. 
The  quickest  loom  does  not  always  weave  the  most  cloth.  The 
7nachine  must  be  adapted  to  the  fibre  or  yarn  to  be  dealt  with,  and  not 
vice-versd. 


CHAPTER  IX 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS,  ILLUSTRATED  BY 
COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  STYLES  AND  BACKED 
AND  DOUBLE-CLOTH  STRUCTURES 

Rightly  considered,  the  value  of  ‘  analysis  ’  in 
most  of  its  forms  cannot  be  overestimated. 
The  value  placed  upon  pattern  analysis  in 
Germany  is  well  illustrated  by  the  time  spent  on  this 
subject  in  the  textile  schools.  Mere  pattern  copying  is 
certainly  to  be  deprecated,  but  in  order  that  a  student 
may  fully  realize  what  has  already  been  done,  and  so  base 
his  experiments  and  developments  on  past  experiences,  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  he  should  analyse  patterns — in 
short,  pattern  analysis  will  serve  as  the  base  from  which 
excursions  may  be  made  into  the  field  of  original  design. 

Synthesis,  the  putting  together  or  combining  of,  say, 
colour  and  weave  to  produce  various  effects — in  other 
words,  research  by  combining  several  factors  in  various 
ways — is,  needless  to  say,  to  be  commended  to  the  de¬ 
signer,  but  he  will  most  certainly  hnd  that  if  his  synthesis 
is  coloured  by  analysis  better  effects  will  result.  Thus,  just 
as  in  the  comprehension  of  animate  nature  an  analytico- 
synthetical  thought  process  goes  on  almost  unconsciously, 
so  in  textile  designing  the  designer  practically  bases  his 
research  on  both  analytical  and  synthetical  processes  of 
thought. 


[  169  ] 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


170 

Again,  in  all  scientific  work  the  importance  of  accuracy 
is  so  marked  that  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  ensure  it. 
Thus  important  results  may  well  be  checked  over  first, 
say,  by  analysis,  and,  secondly,  by  synthesis. 

Perhaps  a  word  on  the  value  of  clearness  of  thought, 
comprehensiveness  of  view,  mobility  of  mind,  and  accu¬ 
racy  in  deduction,  may  here  prove  useful. 

Firstly,  with  Reference  to  Clearness  of  Thought. 
— A  simple  example  may  be  cited  which  will  demonstrate 
what  is  required. 

Example. — What  are  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  employing  extra  warp  or  extra  weft  for  figuring  pur¬ 
poses  ? 

These  advantages  and  disadvantages  may  readily  be 
summed  up  under  the  heading  of  Advantages,  for  what 
is  an  advantage  to  the  one  is  a  disadvantage  to  the  other. 
Again,  to  render  the  summing-up  clearer  and  more  deci¬ 
sive,  balancing  advantages  should  be  placed  alongside 
one  another  where  possible.  Thus  the  first  advantage 
for  extra  warp  is  at  least  partially  balanced  by  the  first 
advantage  of  extra  weft,  and  so  on. 


Advantages  of 


Extra  Warp. 

1.  One  shuttle  only  required. 

2.  No  long  box-chain  or  lags  re¬ 

quired. 

3.  No  difficulty  in  setting-up  and 

letting-off. 

4.  Sooner  woven  -H  25  per  cent. 

more  speed. 

5.  More  colours  can  be  employed. 

6.  Less  waste. 


Extra  Weft. 

1.  No  extra  warp-beam  required. 

2.  No  complex  draft  and  pegging 

plan. 

3.  No  extra  figuring  capacity  re¬ 

quired. 

4.  Figure  and  colouring  more 

readily  changed. 

5.  Cheaper  material  may  be  em¬ 

ployed. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


171 

Most  questions  may  be  summed  up  in  some  such  clear, 
comprehensive  form  as  this. 

Secondly,  with  Reference  to  Comprehensiveness 
OF  View. — In  no  industry  is  this  more  important  than  in 
the  textile  industries.  Again  and  again  cases  have  occurred 
where  omitting  to  consider  an  apparent  detail  has  thrown 
most  excellent  work  and  endeavours  completely  away. 

Example. — If  an  inventor  worked  upon  and  brought 
out  an  improved  hand  card-cutting  machine,  but  failed  to 
realize  that  the  days  of  hand  card-cutting  were  over,*  all 
his  endeavours  would  be  thrown  away,  however  good  and 
praiseworthy.  From  this  point  of  view  it  is  evident  that 
a  good  all-round  knowledge  of  allied  industries  is  a  prac¬ 
tical  necessity  if  true  and  useful  advance  is  to  be  made. 

Thirdly,  with  Reference  to  Mobility  of  Mind. — 
With  the  specializing  of  work  so  prevalent  in  the  present 
day  there  is  great  risk  of  the  mind  becoming  ‘  set  ’  and 
incapable  of  thinking  in  anything  but  the  particular 
work  engaged  upon.  This  may  readily  be  counteracted 
by  taking  interest  in  things  outside  one’s  own  particular 
employment,  but  the  question  is  not  how  to  counteract 
the  tendency,  but  how  to  develop  the  opposite  tendency — 

i.e.,  to  obtain  perfect  mobility  so  that  the  mind  is  capable 
of  approaching  any  question  from  several  points  of  view. 

Example. — The  question  arises  as  to  whether  botany 
wool  wiU  rise  or  fall  in  price  during  the  next  few  months. 

To  answer  this  the  question  must  be  viewed  from — 

1.  The  Australian  climate  and  soil  point  of  view. 

2.  The  Australian  financier’s  point  of  view. 

3.  The  ‘  mutton  ’  point  of  view. 

*  This  is  not  true  at  present,  but  the  position  of  the  card-cutter  is  being 
assailed  by  the  Szczepanik  and  Zerkowitz  electric  card-cutting  machines. 


172 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


4.  The  competitors  of  the  Australian  sheep-growers’ 

point  of  view. 

5.  The  home  and  foreign  wool  and  yarn  merchants’ 

point  of  view. 

6.  The  manufacturers’  and  merchants’  point  of  view ;  and 

7.  The  consuming  public’s  point  of  view  and  ‘  length 

of  purse.’ 

This  example  illustrates  well  both  comprehensive  study 
and  the  necessity  of  such  mobility  of  mind  as  will  enable 
one  to  view  the  same  problem  from  the  several  stand¬ 
points,  and  so  attain  to  right  judgment  on  the  matter.* 

Fourthly,  Accuracy  in  Deduction. — This  is  a 
quality  of  mind  perhaps  only  to  be  attained  to  by  con¬ 
stant  practice  and  at  least  a  few  failures  ;  in  this  case  one 
perhaps  learns  more  from  one’s  failures  than  from  one’s 
successes.  The  ‘  syllogism,’  a  form  of  reasoning  employed 
by  logicians,  is  here  most  useful,  taking  the  simple  form  : 


a 


Or,  expressed  in  words  : 

Iron  (a)  is  a  metal  (b). 

Every  metal  (b)  is  an  element  (c). 

Therefore  iron  (a)  is  an  element  (c). 

*  The  same  principles  may  well  be  applied  to  effectively  criticise 
the  Northrope  Loom. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


173 

Some  such  form  as  this,  varied  in  application,  will  well 
serve  the  textile  designer  or  manufacturer. 

Example. — Which  is  most  advantageous,  to  ship  wool 
from  Australia  in  the  grease  or  scoured  ?  In  this  case 
the  wool  merchant  may  have  all  the  facts  of  the  case, 
such  as  less  bulk  to  carry,  less  freightage  charge  for 
unwashed  wools,  scoured  wools  more  readily  judged,  etc.  ; 
but  he  must  also  bear  in  mind  the  proportionate  value 
of  each  point  if  he  is  to  make  the  true  deduction  that 
usually  wools  are  better  shipped  in  the  grease. 

It  is  almost  needless  to  repeat  that  accuracy  is  the  first 
essential,  without  which  clearness  of  thought,  compre¬ 
hensiveness  of  view,  mobility  of  mind,  and  accuracy  in 
deduction  are  impossible.  It  is,  in  fact,  quality  of  mind 
rather  than  quantity  of  absolute  knowledge  which  is  required 
for  success. 

In  the  following  examples,  in  which  both  analysis  and 
synthesis  are  employed,  the  value  of  the  foregoing  re¬ 
marks  will  be  realized. 

I  The  Analysis  of  Colour  and  Weave  Effects 

In  the  first  place,  what  is  a  colour  and  weave  effect  ? 
A  colour  or  weave  effect  may  be  defined  as  ‘  a  small  form 
in  two  or  more  colours  produced  by  colour  and  weave  in 
combination,  but  in  appearance  usually  quite  distinct  from 
either  the  colouring  or  the  weave  (see  Plate  7) . 

Starting  from  the  known  proceed  to  the  unknown.  In 
Fig.  55  a  well-known  colour  and  weave  style*  is  given. 

*  The  student  should  always  select  a  simple  style,  of  which  he 
already  knows  all  particulars,  to  base  his  research  upon  ;  then,  having 
obtained  an  order  of  procedure,  he  should  check  this  by  applying  it  to 
more  difficult  styles. 


174 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


What  is  the  order  of  warping  and  wefting,  and  what  is  the 
weave  required  to  produce  this  effect  in  its  simple  form  ? 
I.  Select  the  most  likely  warping  and  wefting  plan, 


CL^TH  •  1 


CL9TM 


i 

ii'l 

T  ill 

s 

r  rm  iirimn 

WEAV& 


LFFECT 


WAKglMG  •  fr 
WE:rTiHc;-PL'AM5 


W&AVE 


WAKeiMG  er 
W£:rTiH<3 'FirAnS) 


•CLP.TM-S* 


WAflElfIG  •  O' 
wEirTiMc;  -FL-Aris 


PLATE  7.— COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  EFFECTS 

indicating  this  along  with  the  effect  on  point-paper 
(Design  Sheet  22). 

Note. — The  finest  line  in  the  style  will  usually  be 
formed  by  a  single  thread  or  pick. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


175 


2.  Indicate  by  H  where  the  warp  must  come  up—Le., 
{a)  when  dark  picks  enter  the  cloth — where  the  design 
shows  light ;  (&)  when  light  picks  enter  the  cloth— -where 
the  design  shows  dark  (Design  Sheet  22,  No.  2). 

3.  Indicate  by  where  the  weft  must  come  up~Le., 


FIG.  55. — ILLUSTRATING  RIGHT  AND  LEFT  STEP  PATTERN  FIGURE 


(a)  when  dark  threads  enter  the  cloth— where  the  design 
shows  light ;  (6)  when  light  threads  enter  the  cloth— 
where  the  design  shows  dark  (Design  Sheet  22,  No.  3). 

4.  FoUow  out  the  weave,  which  has  already  commenced 
to  appear,  by  0  marks  over  the  sections  of  the  design 


176 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


which,  so  far,  have  no  marks  on,  and  which  may  he  either 
warp  or  weft  (Design  Sheet  22,  No.  4). 

5.  Transfer  the  weave  on  to  the  ordinary  principle  of 
representing  intersections  (marks  =  weft). 


WTE:  E'^WAKP 

0  ^ AD51T}?H^  ®r  £ITHER ' WAT^P^K.- WEFT 


DESIGN  SHEET  22. “-“ILLUSTRATING  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  COLOUR  AND  WEAVE 
EFFECTS  IN  STAGES 

NoTE.—It  will  be  frequently  found  that  No.  4  decides 
what  the  weave  shall  be. 

In  order  that  the  student  may  fully  realize  the  diffi¬ 
culties  to  be  met,  the  effects  on  Design  Sheet  22A  are 
given,  any  of  which— being  varieties  of  step  pattern— may 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


177 


be  the  effect  required,  and  not  the  style  given  on  Design 
Sheet  22.  In  this  case  the  designer  would  simply  select 
the  effect  which  he  could  most  readily  produce.  Thus, 
if  he  has  only  tappet  looms,  a  4-thread  weave  would  be 
more  easily  produced  than  a  6,  8,  or  12  thread  weave  ; 
but  he  must  be  sure  that  he  is  producing  the  fight  effect. 


DESIGN  SHEET  22A.— ILLUSTRATING  COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  (SYNTHESIS)  STEP  PATTERNS 


No.  4,  for  example,  wiU  not  do  in  place  of  No.  i.  In 
Design  Sheet  22  b  the  analysis  of  a  more  elaborate  style 
is  given.  In  this  case  the  filling-in  required  for  stage  4 
will  be  any  interlacing  giving  the  requisite  firmness  of 
handle  to  the  cloth. 


The  Synthesis  of  Colour  and  Weave  Effects 

If  the  student  has  fully  comprehended  what  ‘  colour 
and  weave  ’  effects  are  from  the  foregoing,  he  may  now 


12 


178 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


begin  to  explore  their  possibilities  by  synthetical  study. 
In  the  following  brief  treatment  two  points  are  kept  in 
view  :  (i)  to  illustrate  perfect  and  complete  results,  and 


/TCTliAL-PATTEE^H- 


ErrEGT-9H-P?lHT-PAF£^  WEAVE-  D*  • 

DESIGN  SHEET  22B. — ILLUSTRATING  COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  (ANALYSIS) 


the  method  by  which  such  are  obtained  ;  (2)  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  thousands  of  patterns  which  may  be  thus 
produced. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


179 


Example  i.—Work  out  all  the  possible  effects  pro¬ 
ducible  by  combining  plain  weave  and  i  dark,  i  light 
colouring  in  both  warp  and  weft.  i  I 

In  the  first  place  it  will  be  noted  that  the  ‘  footing  ’ 
of  either  colouring  or  weave  may  be  changed  ;  also  that 
there  will  be  four  changes  of  ‘  footing  ’*  for  the  colouring 
(warp  and  weft),  and  two  changes  of  ‘  footing  ’  for  the 
weave.  These  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  : 


Plain  Weave  — . 

1 

1  1  1. 


Warp  :  i  dark,  i  light  i  dark,  i  light  i  light,  i  dark 
Weft ;  1  dark,  i  light  J  i  light,  i  dark  i  light,  i  dark 


I  light,  I  dark 
1  dark,  i  light 


Plain  Weave  — 

I 


Warp:  i  dark,  i  light  i  dark,  i  light  i  light,  i  dark 
Weft :  I  dark,  i  light  fi  light,  i  dark  I  light,  i  dark 


1+ 

I  light,  I  dark 
I  dark,  i  light 


From  this  example  the  student  should  understand  what 
is  implied  by  changing  the  footing  of  the  colouring  and 
of  the  weave.  Upon  working  out  these  effects  on  point- 
paper  (Design  Sheet  22c)  it  will  be  noticed  that  there  are 
only  two  distinct  effects,  and  the  fact  that  the  weave  is 
on  two  threads  and  two  picks,  and  the  colouring  on  two, 
suggests  the  explanation. 


*  This  is  simply  a  technical  word  for  order  and  position, 
t  The  four  changes  of  footing  of  the  colouring  possible. 

X  The  order  of  the  shuttles  will  be  more  readily  changed  than  the 
order  of  the  warping. 


12—2 


i8o 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Example  2. — Work  out  all  the  possible  effects  producible 
by  combining  — ^  twill  weave  with  4  dark,  4  light  warp¬ 
ing,  and  2  dark,  2  light  wefting. 


CHANGE  9F  r99TIMG- 
A  9r  WARP  6*  WEFT 


15  CMAMGE  9F-  F99T1HG-9F  WEAVE 


• 

4 

4 

• 

• 

* 

• 

• 

• 

« 

' 

• 

• 

• 

• 

» 

* 

« 

« 

• 

m 

«  . 

» 

• 

* 

• 

i 

1 

• 

• 

« 

9 

i 

h 

f 

• 

4 

.  jf. 

4 

• 

4 

« 

• 

.  4 

• 

1  • 

% 

4 

• 

1 

• 

1  i 

• 

I  « 

•oiaeoao 

HDiaaDMO 

■naQaDid 

IQlBMOaO; 


DESIGN  SHEET  22C. — ILLUSTRATING  COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  (SYNTHESIS) 


There  are  here  four  possible  footings  for  the  weave, 
four  possible  footings  for  the  warp  colouring,  and  two 
possible  footings  for  the  weft  colouring.  Upon  due  con- 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


i8i 


sideration  it  will  be  found  that  here  it  is  best  to  keep  the 
footing  of  warp  and  weft  colouring  stationary,  and  to 
change  the  footing  of  the  weave,  thus  : 

Warp :  "j 

4  dark,  4  light  2112  2 

Weft :  I  ■”2’  '  2'  (3)  i-,  and  (4)  — . 

2  dark,  2  light!  ( Weft  Sections.) 

These  effects  are  illustrated  in  Design  Sheet  22D. 

The  following  list  includes  most  of  the  standard  colour 
and  weave  effects. 


Colouring. 


Weaves. 


I  dark,  i  light 


3  »  I 

2  „  2 

3  »  3 

4  ,,  2 

4  ,,  4 

6  „  2 


If  the  designer  wishes  to  explore  the  possibilities  of  any 
given  weave — say,  Mayo — in  yielding  colour  and  weave 
effects,  he  should  apply  the  following  orders  of  warping, 
and  check  each  pattern  with  its  own  weft,  thus  obtaining 
18x18  =  324  patterns. 


Pattern  Nos. 

Order  of  Colouring* 

I 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

1 1 

12  13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

Dark  ... 

I 

2 

I 

2 

3 

I 

3 

4 

2 

4 

6 

2  6 

8 

4 

8 

12 

4 

Light  . 

I 

I 

2 

2 

I 

3 

3 

2 

4 

4 

2 

6'  6 

i 

4 

8 

8 

4 

12 

*  The  designer  should  always  endeavour  to  arrange  his  colourings 
and  weaves  in  the  most  convenient  manner  for  his  immediate  purpose. 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


182 


5 


DESIGN  SHEET  22D. — COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  (SYNTHESIS) 
Designed  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  changing  the  footing  of  the  weave 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


183 


Method  of  Working-out  Colour  and  Weave 
Effects 

The  following  order  of  procedure  in  originating  ‘  colour 
and  weave  ’  effects  should  be  adhered  to  until  the  student 
has  become  perfectly  conversant  with  the  possibilities  of 
these  styles,  when  he  may  adopt  this  or  any  other  order 
he  thinks  best. 

WEAVE. 


1  a 


3  ^ 

DESIGN  SHEET  22E. — COLOUR  AND  WEAVE  (SYNTHESIS) 

From  a  given  weave  and  colouring  to  ascertain  the  colour  and  weave  effect  in  four  stages 

1.  Put  lightly  on  to  point-paper  at  least  four  repeats  of 
the  weave  to  be  employed  (see  Design  Sheet  22E,  Weave). 

2.  Alongside  this  weave  indicate  the  order  of  warp  and 
weft  colouring  (Design  Sheet  22E,  No.  i). 

3.  Where  dark  threads  come  to  the  surface  {i.e.,  blanks 
in  the  point-paper  design)  paint  in  black  (Design  Sheet 
22E,  No.  2). 


184 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


4.  Where  dark  picks  come  to  the  surface  {i.e.,  marks 
in  the  point-paper  design)  paint  in  black  (Design  Sheet 
22E,  No.  3). 

5.  Treat  any  other  colours  in  the  same  way. 

Double  Cloths  Treated  Synthetically 

The  various  problems  in  backed  and  double-cloth  con¬ 
struction  are  most  interesting,  and  if  rightly  ‘  tackled  ’  by 
the  young  designer  will  serve  him  both  as  knowledge  and 
discipline  ;  as  discipline  in  orderly  and  consecutive  work 
and  seeing  in  the  ‘  mind’s  eye,’  it  is  impossible  to  over¬ 
estimate  their  value. 

Double  cloths  may  be  classified  under  four  heads — 

I.  Those  warped  and  wefted  i  face  and  i  back.* 

J5  2  5)  ^ 

3‘  5)  5)  >>  3  ^  5> 

4.  ,,  ,,  ,,  in  a  mixed  order. 

Whichever  of  the  foregoing  classes  is  required,  the  follow¬ 
ing  order  of  working  out  the  necessary  point-paper  plan 
is  recommended,  being  illustrated  in  Design  Sheet  23. 


The  Construction  of  Double  Cloths 

1.  Indicate  the  backing  threads  and  picks  in  some 
light  transparent  colour  (No.  i). 

2.  Insert  the  face  weave  where  face  threads  intersect 
with  face  picks  (No.  2). 

*  An  important  exception  occurs  when  the  loom  has  only  boxes  at 
one  end,  when  a  i  and  i  style  becomes  a  2  and  2  style,  but  the  re¬ 
sultant  effect  is  usually  exactly  the  same.  Refer  to  p.  187. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  185 

3.  Insert  the  backing  weave  hacking  threads  inter¬ 
sect  with  backing  picks  (No.  3). 


4.  When  backing  threads  enter  the  cloth  indicate  all 
face  threads  up  (No.  4). 


FACE'  Of'  THE-TWo .  ?FTHE*TW9'CIP.TH5 


i86 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


I’LATE  8. --THE  TYING  OF  BACKED  OR  DOUBLE 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  187 


5.  When  face  picks  enter  the  cloth  mark  all  backing 
threads  down  (A).* 

6.  Tie  the  two  fabrics  together  by  bringing  a  backing 
thread  over  a  face  pick  with  face  threads  up  on  each  side,  or  by 
bringing  a  backing  pick  over  a  face  thread’wf^A  face  picks  up 


DESIGN  SHEET  23A. — ILLUSTRATING  DOUBLE  CLOTH  (SYNTHESIS) 
A  2  and  i  style  and  a  double-pick  style 


on  each  side,  thus  hiding  the  tie  effectively.  The  ties  should 
be  distributed  in  sateen  order  if  at  all  possible.  The  first 
method  of  tying  here  indicated  is  usually  the  better. 

On  Design  Sheet  23A,  No.  i,  an  example  of  the  second 
class  is  given  (2  face  to  i  back),  the  face  weave  being  -  - 

*  If  marks  are  taken  to  equal  warp  up  No.  4  will  be  marked  and 
No.  5  left  blank :  just  the  reverse  as  here  given. 


i88 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


twill,  and  the  back  plain  weave,  the  tying  being  effected 
by  bringing  backing  warp  over  face  picks  in  8-sateen 
order  (see  Fig.  53).* 

In  No.  2  another  double  — ^  twill  cloth  is  given,  but 
in  this  case,  while  the  threads  are  i  and  i  the  picks  are 
2  and  2,  being  so  arranged  for  a  loom  with  boxes  at  one 


end  only.  The  ultimate  effect  will  be  similar  to  that 
produced  in  Design  Sheet  23,  but  in  this  case  the  two 
cloths  are  not  bound  together,  a  check  figure  being  formed 
by  the  back  cloth  coming  to  the  face  and  the  face  cloth 
going  to  the  back — i.e.,  by  reversing.  This  is  typical 
of  a  large  class  of  figured  fabrics,  including  some  crepons. 

*  The  student  should  make  the  point-paper  plan  from  this  flat  view. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


189 


CL9TM-1 


PLAM  6-  C91i>aRinCg 
F9R-  CLRTH  J  ^ 


PLAM  6-  CPlPaRlMCi  ; 
F9R-  CLSTHS  5 


PLAM- 6-  C?U?aRinc5 
F9R-CIPTH  1 


PLAM  6-  CPlSaRlMG 
F9R  CL9TM  S. 


isw; 


CLPTH-a 


iiifiifflflllpiiii:  ^  ■■  ■■■::■ 

«*Ta«t«jii«ia««4'«4  ta  a»HHaaV««»aM»i 


— j*  *a  a»HHaaV««»aM»a«. 

'?»aw5taItJ*i»*?t»ii5*}’*Jiaii{'»a'ja»J»3»«W*»5 

>>iaa<«afl«<«»»«<a*<«<T<aa«<|i<a^aaaM><IOa<>'>»t3<'<««. 
a>t  III  **at01  taiiOtltnaaKtataaat  aiitcttaaaalatfmoxa 

.•« -4 M. ««n|M»«aa4<44aa<4<s4 j«f 


a<i  I  a  n«44a  «>*><••  «*}•  iaWi  «•«!••)•!>< 

««ia4S44>  aaoKaMjaita 


iiiiiii 


lllii-ji-inliiiriiHi,. 

:*»ta»Si«ai 


'“"tsiKsSsi!;:!! 


FLATE  9. — DOUBLE  PLAIN  CLOTH  EFFECTS 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


190 


The  Analysis  of  Backed  and  Double  Cloths 

Weight  may  be  added  to  fabrics  by  adding  a  backing 
weft,  by  adding  a  backing  warp,  by  adding  another  cloth 
(double  cloth),  and,  further,  by  adding  a  wadding  pick 


a  c 


BACiA 


DESIGN  SHEET  24.  —  ILLUSTRATING  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  WARP  AND  WEFT  BACKED 
CLOTH  DESIGNS 


between  the  two  cloths.  Whichever  style  is  to  be 
analysed,  the  following  order  of  procedure  will  apply,  and 
if  the  student  has  fully  realized  the  previous  treatment 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 


191 


he  will  now  have  no  difficulty  in  analysing  most  styles  ; 
some,  of  course,  puzzle  even  the  expert. 


DESIGN  SHEET  24A.— ILLUSTRATING  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  A  DOUBLE  CLOTH  IN  STAGES 


Method  of  Analysis. —  i.  Carefully  examine  the 
point-paper  plan  and  ascertain  whether  backed  with 
warp,  or  weft,  or  both  (Design  Sheets  24,  24A,  and  24B). 


192 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


DESIGN  SHEET  24B.— ILLUSTKATJNG  THE  ANALYSIS  OF  A  WADDED  DOUBLE  CLOTH 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  193 

2.  Paint  out  the  order  of  backing  (warp  way,  weft  way, 
or  both)  lightly  on  point-paper,  and  dot  the  weave  in  ink 
over  this  ;  thus  backing  threads  and  picks  will  come  on 
the  colour,  and  face  threads  and  picks  on  the  white  (A) . 

3.  Take  out  carefully  the  face,  as  shown  at  B  (from 


design  sheet  25.— illustrating  effective  and  ineffective  textile  design 

intersections  of  face  threads  with  face  picks),  and  the 
backing  weave,  as  shown  at  C  (from  intersections  of 
backing  threads  with  backing  picks),  and  finally  note  the 
tie  by  a  distinct  colour. 

With  reference  to  structure  it  will  be  noted  that — 


13 


194 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Design  Sheet  24,  No.  i,  is  a  simple  warp-backed 
structure  ;  No.  2  is  a  simple  weft-backed  structure. 
Design  Sheet  24A  illustrates  every  stage  in  the  analysis 

o 

of  a  double  — ^  twill  cloth,  ties  being  omitted. 

Design  Sheet  24B  illustrates  the  analysis  of  a  double 

2 

—  twill  cloth  of  the  second  class,  with  the  addition  of  a 
2 

wadding  pick. 

If  the  designer  has  any  trouble  with  these  styles  after 
experimenting  thus,  he  should  construct  some  double¬ 
cloth  plans  on  point-paper  and  then  endeavour  to  analyse 
these  ;  from  the  knowledge  thus  gained  he  may  draw  up 
an  order  of  procedure  which  will  apply  perfectly  in  un¬ 
known  cases  ;  but  he  must  be  certain  that  his  method  is 
correct. 

If  he  still  has  difficulties  he  should  draw  a  diagram  of 
the  structure,  and  from  this  make  out  the  point-paper 
plan.  Such  a  flat  view  as  might  be  thus  employed  is 
shown  in  Fig.  53. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  noted  that,  while  this  latter  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  chapter  has  little  value  as  ‘  knowledge,’  it 
has  considerable  value  as  ‘  discipline,’  and  that  through 
work  of  this  kind  a  quality  of  mind  may  be  attained 
which  successfully  faces  and  surmounts  all  difficulties. 
Thus  the  student  who  has  conscientiously  worked  through 
this  chapter  will  find  that,  in  addition  to  having  gained 
much  absolute  knowledge,  he  can  with  confidence  face 
and  successfully  surmount  many  difficult  problems  not 
even  referred  to  in  this  work. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUSTRE  GOODS 
ERHAPS  no  industry  so  much  as  the  textile  re¬ 


quires  such  care,  comprehensive  study,  and 
forethought  ;  the  omission  of  one  detail  may 


negative  all  previous  care  and  labour.  The  manufac¬ 
ture  of  lustre  goods,  variously  spoken  of  as  ‘  glace,’ 

‘  Orleans,’  ‘  alpaca  linings,’  etc.,  will  serve  as  an  excel¬ 
lent  example  to  demonstrate  this. 

Required. — From  a  cotton  warp  and  mohair,  English 
or  demi-lustre  weft  the  most  lustrous  plain  piece  possible. 

This  subject  may  be  studied  conveniently  under  the 
headings  : 

1.  Materials  (warp  and  weft) — quality  of  lustre. 

2.  Spinning — thread-construction  processes  and  effect 
of  twist. 

3.  Warping  and  dressing — study  of  possible  defects. 

4.  Weaving — cloth  construction  and  loom  setting. 

5.  Finishing — effects  on  cloth  and  possible  defects. 

All  these  points  must  be  carefully  studied  by  the 
designer  if  he  is  to  obtain  satisfactory  results,  and  we  are 
disposed  to  think  that  a  sixth  point — character  and 
capabilities  of  the  weavers  and  others  through  whose  hands 
the  pieces  pass — should  be  added. 

13 — 2  [  195  ] 


196 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


I.  Materials  (Warp  and  Weft) 

In  some  fabrics  one  material — warp  or  weft — is  all 
important ;  in  this  case,  although  the  warp  plays  a  sub¬ 
servient  part,  both  materials  are  of  equal  importance, 
the  weft,  as  will  be  shown,  depending  upon  the  warp. 

The  warp  is  invariably  a  good  quality  of  cotton  yarn ; 
in  fact,  it  must  be  the  tightest  and  best  spun  cotton  ob¬ 
tainable,  for  the  lustre  of  the  piece  will  ultimately  depend 
upon  the  warp  bending  the  weft,  and  if  it  is  soft  how  can 
it  do  this  ? 

The  best  cotton  yarn  for  the  purpose,  therefore,  will 
be  made  from  a  good  Egyptian  cotton,  combed  and  flyer 
spun.  The  chief  point  to  note,  however,  is  that  the  yarn 
must  be  compact  and  clean.  The  cotton-yarn  merchant 
must  be  asked  for  this  by  the  lustre  goods  manufacturer, 
and  he  should  see  that  he  gets  it. 

The  quality  of  weft  is  equally  important.  The  lustre  of 
the  piece,  in  the  first  place,  resides  in  the  lustre  weft  ; 
thus  the  manufacturer  must  be  certain  that  he  is  getting 
the  lustre  for  which  he  is  paying.  The  most  lustrous  yarn 
will  be  yielded  by  a  good  quality  of  Turkey  mohair,  this 
being  closely  followed  by  Cape  mohair,  and  perhaps,  in 
the  near  future,  it  will  be  followed  by  American  and 
Australian*  mohair.  English  and  demi-lustre  wools  yield 
decreasing  lustre,  although,  if  rightly  employed,  quite 
sufficient  for  this  purpose.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  effect  of  climate  upon  wool  is  such  that  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  river  Welland,  separating  Lincolnshire  from 

*  The  rearing  of  the  Angora  goat  in  Australia  is  yet  in  the  experi¬ 
mental  stage. 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUSTRE  GOODS  197 


the  neighbouring  counties,  a  pure  lustre  wool  grows,  and 
on  the  south  bank  a  much  inferior  lustre  ;  feed  the  lustrous 
Lincoln  sheep  on  the  south  bank  and  away  goes  its  lustre. 

2.  Spinning 

The  method  of  preparing  and  spinning  and  doubling 
the  warp  yarn  is  important* ;  still  more  important  is  the 
preparing  and  spinning  of  the  weft  yarn.  Defective  scour¬ 
ing  may  spoil  the  lustre  and  colour,  imperfect  parallelism 
of  the  fibres  will  take  from  the  lustre,  too  great  a  speed 
in  spinning  will  leave  a  like  effect— twist  and  lustre  will 
probably  be  in  inverse  ratio. 

Thus,  for  the  typical  lustre  yarn  the  natural  lustre  of 
the  fibre  must  be  fed,  if  possible,  and  not  impoverished  ; 
the  fibres  in  the  thread  structure  must  be  as  parallel  as 
possible,  little  twist  being  inserted,  and  compactness — 
adding  lustre  —  must  be  obtained  by  flyer  spinning  as 
distinct  from  ‘  cap  ’  spinning  which  is  employed  for  non- 
lustrous  yarns. 

3.  Warping  and  Dressing 

As  the  ultimate  lustre  of  the  piece  depends  upon  the 
hard  warp  bending  regularly  the  lustrous  weft,  an  abso¬ 
lutely  regularly  tensioned  warp  must  be  obtained.  Thus 
the  warp  should  be  made  from  cheeses  of  an  equal  diameter 
and  weight,  warped  from,  say,  a  semicircular  creel,  and,  in 
fact,  everything  done  to  obtain  an  absolutely  regular 
tension  in  the  resultant  cloth. 

The  dressing  is  of  equal  importance  :  what  has  been 
attained  in  the  warping  must  be  retained  in  the  dressing. 

*  A  ring-spun  yarn  is  fatal  to  quality  in  a  lustre  piece. 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


198 

In  the  case  of  the  warp  being  delivered  in  two  balls  these 
should  be  dressed  i  and  i  or  2  and  2,  so  that  any  difference 
in  them  is  equalized. 


4.  Weaving 

This  simply  resolves  itself  into  obtaining  a  piece  from 
which  ‘  reed  marks  ’  have  been  eliminated,  in  which  the 
warp  bends,*  and  in  which  there  are  considerably  more 
picks  than  threads  if  the  cloth  is  ultimately  to  be  on  the 
square. 

To  fulfil  these  requirements  the  top  and  bottom  parts  of 
any  given  shed  must  be  crossed  before  beating-up  takes 
place,  thus  insuring  heavy  wefting  and  bending  of  the  warp. 
If  possible,  the  piece  should  be  woven  one  in  a  reed.  Of 
prime  importance  is  the  picking.  The  overlooker  who 
with  little  ‘  pick  ’  can  weave  a  lustre  yarn  with  little 
twist  will  certainly  carry  off  the  palm.  Even  the  angle 
of  the  reed  against  the  fell  of  the  cloth  may  influence 
the  resultant  cloth. 


5.  Finishing 

Practical  experience  has  shown  that  if  a  perfect  lustre- 
piece  is  to  be  obtained  without  crimps  it  must  be  wound 
on  dry,  and  that  to  obtain  the  greatest  amount  of  lustre 
the  weft  must  be  bent  by  pulling  the  warp  perfectly  straight. 

It  will  now  be  realized  that  if  the  warp  is  soft  it  wiU  be 
impossible  to  make  the  lustre  weft  bend.  For  example, 
if  the  warp  by  accident  was  made  4  threads  soft  twist, 
4  threads  hard  twist,  the  finished  cloth  would  show  dull 
and  lustrous  stripes  of  4  threads  each. 

*  This  is  partially  effected  by  the  ‘  sink  ’  of  the  shed. 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUSTRE  GOODS  199 


In  order  that  the  student  may  fully  understand  the 
change  which  takes  place  in  a  lustre  cloth,  the  following 
particulars  are  given,  being  based  upon  practice. 

Cloth  in  Loom. 

Warp.  Weft. 

All  2/100’s  cotton  (j^  of  an  inch).  All  1/32’s  mohair  (yio  of  an  inch). 

64  threads  per  inch.  76  picks  per  inch. 

Cloth  Finished. 

Warp.  Weft. 

All  2/100’s  cotton.  All  1/32’s  mohair. 

72  threads  per  inch.  70  to  72  picks  per  inch. 

Thus,  if  these  particulars  were  for  a  figured  style  the 
figure  would  be  designed  on  the  square,  although  the  cloth 
in  the  loom  is  not  on  the  square. 

Reference  to  the  Science  of  Cloth  Construction, 
Chapter  IV.,  will  render  the  ‘why  and  wherefore’  of  this 
change  more  apparent.  The  compression  of  the  lustre 
yarn  in  one  direction,  its  consequent  extension  in  another 
direction,  the  straightening  of  the  cotton  warp,  and  the 
effect  of  aU  these  influences  on  the  set  are  well  worth  in¬ 
vestigating  from  the  practical  point  of  view,  and  really 
prove  most  interesting. 

Perhaps  the  chief  lesson  which  the  student  has  here  to 
learn  is  that  plain  fabrics  are  the  most  difficult  fabrics 
to  make  perfect  in  appearance  ;  colour  and  figure  may  be 
made  to  cover  a  multitude  of  sins. 


APPENDIX 


Elementary  Yarn  Calculations 


I.  UPPOSING  you  are  supplied  with  a  pack  of  wool 

to  spin  into  yarn  of  this  thickness  would 
you  measure  the  diameter  and  spin  to  that,  or 
give  instructions  that  every  yard  or  metre  should  weigh, 
say,  I  dram,  or  i  gramme,  or  state  that  each  i  pound 
or  kilogramme  of  material  was  to  be  drawn  out  to,  say, 
1,000  yards  or  metres?  Look  at  this  question  from  the 
spinner's  point  of  view. 

2.  Looking  at  the  above  question  from  the  cloth  con¬ 
structor’s  point  of  view,  will  it  be  better  to  state  the 
‘  counts  of  yarn  ’  in  diameter,  in  area  (weight),  or  in 
length  ? 

3.  Can  you  explain  why  there  should  be  the  following 
number  of  yards  per  hank  ? — 


Worsted . . 
Cotton  .  . 
Woollen  .  . 
Metric  . . 
French  . . 


•  560 
840 

•  256 

.  1,000  metres 

.  2,000  metres  (1,000  per  ^  kilo). 


What  is  the  ‘count’  of  a  yarn,  and  why  is  it  useful  to 
know  what  the  counts  of  a  yarn  is  ? 

[  200  ] 


ELEMENTARY  YARN  CALCULATIONS  201 


4.  Represent  by  diagrams  i  pound  of  yarn  spun  to 
2o’s  cotton  counts,  and  i  pound  spun  to  30’s  worsted 
counts ;  also  20’s  cotton  counts  and  20’s  worsted  counts. 
Why  has  a  different  count  the  same  length  per  pound, 
and  the  same  count  a  different  length  per  pound  ?  Experi¬ 
ment  in  a  similar  manner  with  woollen,  linen,  silk,  etc., 
and  draw  up  the  rule  for  converting  counts  of  yarn  from 
one  denomination  to  all  other  denominations. 

5.  Represent  by  diagrams  the  twisting  of  two  threads 
of  40’s  worsted  together,  explaining  why  they  give  20’s 
counts.  Also  a  thread  of  30’s  cotton  with  a  thread  of 
bo’s  cotton,  explaining  why  they  yield  a  20’s  counts.* 

6.  What  will  be  the  ‘  resultant  counts  ’  and  the  price 
per  pound  of  the  following  ? — 

2  threads  of  bo’s  botany  @  3s.  per  pound. 

I  thread  of  30’s  ,,  @  2s.  ,, 

Also  give  the  average  counts. 

7.  What  thread  would  you  twist  with  a  bo’s  count  in 
any  denomination  to  yield  a  30’s  count  ?  Explain  by 
means  of  a  diagram.  Also  what  thread  would  you  twist 
with  a  30’s  to  yield  a  20’s  ?  Why  is  denomination  omitted  ? 

8.  What  will  be  the  ‘  average  ’  counts  and  price  per 
pound  of  the  following  ? — 

4  threads  1/20’s  cotton  @  is.  per  pound. 

2  ,,  1/30’s  worsted  @  2s.  ,, 

Will  you  state  your  answer  in  cotton  or  in  worsted  counts  ? 

9.  Can  you  give  an  explanation  as  to  why  weft  yarns 
for  the  lining  trade  are  sold  by  the  gross  (144)  of  hanks — 

*  There  is  no  allowance  made  for  ‘  take-up  ’  here. 


202 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


i.e.,  length,  as  distinct  from  yarns  for  the  coating  trade, 
which  are  usually  by  weight  ? 

In  the  case  of  silk  yarns  the  count  is  sometimes  ex- 


Metric  count  numbers 

FIG.  48. — CONVERSION  OF  YAKN*COUNT  DIAGRAMS* 


pressed  by  ‘  drams  per  1,000  yards.’  Would  this  method 
answer  for  worsted  weft  yarns  ? 

In  the  case  of  weft  yarns  why  should  144 -^counts  give 
the  pounds  per  gross  of  hanks  ? 

*  The  student,  on  his  own  account,  should  find  out  how  to  use  this 
diagram  by  means  of  a  few  simple  experiments. 


ELEMENTARY  CLOTH  CALCULATIONS  203 


Elementary  Cloth  Calculations 

1.  What  factors  must  be  taken  into  account  in  calcu¬ 
lating  the  weight  of  a  warp,  and  which  are  the  most 
convenient  letters  to  represent  these  factors  ? 

2.  In  the  case  of  a  calculation  for  the  weight  of  a  warp 
why  should 

N  X  W  X  L  p 
CxH  “  • 

Illustrate  this  by  diagrams. 

3.  A  worsted  warp  is  composed  of  1,800  ends,  is  56  yards 
long,  and  weighs  10  pounds.  What  is  its  counts  ?  Ex¬ 
plain  clearly  why  this  calculation  works  out  so  easily. 

4.  Is  it  convenient  to  always  state  the  number  of  threads 
in  a  warp  ?  If  not,  do  you  prefer  to  {a)  state  the  dents  per 
inch,  threads  per  dent,  and  the  width,  or  {h)  the  set  and 
threads  per  dent,  and  the  width  ?  Look  at  the  question 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  spinner,  the  warper,  the 
manufacturer,  the  dresser  and  twister,  the  weaver,  and 
the  designer.  Convert  a  12’s  reed  4’s  set  into  a  Bradford, 
Leeds,  Manchester,  etc.,  and  state  in  the  form  of  a  list. 
Convert  a  bo’s  Bradford  set,  a  9  portie  Leeds  set, 
and  an  1800  Manchester  set  into  the  threads  per  inch 
denomination. 

5.  Calculate  by  two  methods  the  cost  of  the  following 
cloth  in  the  finished  state  : 

Warp. 

2  threads  1/30’s  worsted  @  2s.  per  pound. 

I  thread  40/2  silk  @  12s.  per  pound. 

16^  reed  4’s. 

Weft. 

All  1/40’s  worsted  @  2s.  6d.  per  pound. 

60  picks  per  inch. 


204 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Warp  70  yards,  grey  cloth  66  yards,  finished  cloth  64 
yards  long.  Width  in  loom  60  inches.  Add  5  per  cent, 
for  waste  of  weft,  or  calculate  weft  on  the  warp  length. 

6.  Illustrate  by  diagrams  the  following  changes  which 
take  place  from  the  cloth  in  the  loom  to  the  finished  cloth : 

(а)  As  finished  width  :  loom  width  :  :  threads  per  inch  in  loom  : 

threads  per  inch  finished. 

(б)  As  finished  length  ;  loom  length  : :  picks  per  inch  in  loom  : 

picks  per  inch  finished. 

(c)  As  threads  per  inch  in  loom  :  threads  per  inch  finished  : : 

finished  width  :  loom  width. 

(d)  As  picks  per  inch  in  loom  :  picks  per  inch  finished  :  :  finished 

length  ;  loom  length. 

(e)  As  finished  weight  :  grey  weight :  ;  grey  counts  of  warp  ; 

As  finished  length  :  grey  length  j  finished  counts  of  warp. 

( /)  As  finished  weight  ;  grey  weight)  :  ;  grey  counts  of  weft  : 

As  finished  width  :  grey  width  j  finished  counts  of  weft. 

Note. — {e)  and  (/)  are  only  true  on  the  supposition  that  warp  and 
weft  lose  weight  in  a  similar  proportion  in  finishing. 


Elementary  Designing 

Note. — The  questions  should  be  worked  out  in  the  first 
instance  without  reference  to  the  book,  but  subsequently 
corrected. 

1.  Draw  a  section  and  flat  view  of  plain  cloth,  a 
section  and  a  flat  view  of  gauze,  and  a  section  of  plush. 

2.  By  means  of  sketches  e.xplain  how  point-paper 
represents  the  woven  fabric.  Also  how  weaves  are  re¬ 
peated  on  point-paper  and  in  the  loom. 

3.  Design  a  system  for  originating  all  possible  twills 
on  16  threads  by  16  picks. 

4.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  ordinary  and  a 
compound  twill  ?  Give  four  examples  of  each. 

5.  State  clearly  the  principles  which  enable  you  to 


ELEMENTARY  DESIGNING 


205 


estimate  the  possible  number  of  thread-and-thread  or 
pick-and-pick  combinations  resulting  from — 


(a)  - —  twill  and  -  -  twill. 

4  2 

(b)  ~  twill  and  - — ^  -  tw 

I  42 

(c)  ^  twill  and  - —  twill. 

4  4 


6.  How  many  distinct  effects  may  be  obtained  by  com¬ 
bining  weaves  44  and  46  (Design  Sheet  i,  p.  23)  thread 
and  thread,  or  2  threads  of  44  to  i  thread  of  46  ? 

Supply  the  simplest  draft  and  pegging  plan  for  one  of 
these  combinations,  and  give  the  calculation  for  a  set  01 
gears  to  weave  a  piece  of  cloth  with  this  draft — set  to  be 
60  threads  per  inch,  48  inches  wide. 

7.  What  possible  variations  of  crape  weaves  are  you 
acquainted  with  (thread  and  thread  and  pick  and  pick 
combinations)  ? 

Give  at  least  two  examples  of  each,  illustrating  clearly 
the  method  of  origination. 

8.  Taking  twill  No.  22  (Design  Sheet  i,  p.  23)  work  out — 

(a)  All  possible  combinations  of  these  threads. 

{b)  All  possible  permutations  of  these  threads. 

9.  Explain  clearly  the  origination  of  the  sateen — 

(a)  By  rearranging  the  threads  of,  say,  twill; 

(b)  By  counting  on  the  desired  number  of  threads  and 

picks. 

10.  What  is  the  difference  between  a  regular  and  an 
irregular  sateen  derivative  ? 


206 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


Give  as  many  methods  as  possible  of  employing  the 
sateens  as  a  basis  for  small  weave  origination. 

11.  Explain  briefly,  by  means  of  examples,  the  use  of 
the  sateen  as  a  basis  in— 

(a)  Fancy  twills. 

(b)  Stripes. 

(c)  Checks. 

(d)  Diapers. 

12.  If  design  42  (Design  Sheet  No.  i)  is  pegged  upon  a 
dobby  loom  mounted  with  ten  shafts,  explain  how,  by  draft¬ 
ing,  sateen  rearrangements  of  this  twill  may  be  produced. 

13.  What  type  of  weaves  usually  results  from  the 
‘  motive  and  weave  ’  method  of  origination  ?  Illustrate 
the  possible  variations  by  at  least  twelve  examples. 

14.  Design  eight  small  figure  effects  suitable  for  arrang¬ 
ing  in  sateen  order — 

(a)  Two  which  are  not  reversible. 

{b)  Two  which  are  reversible. 

(c)  Two  which  may  be  turned  in  four  positions. 

(d)  Two  which  may  be  turned  in  five  positions. 

15.  Arrange  the  foregoing  figures  in  the  most  suitable 
sateen  orders.  In  (c),  for  example,  4  or  8  sateen  order 
should  be  adopted  ;  in  (d)  5  or  10  sateen  order. 

16.  Complete  an  extensive  series  of  the  weave  and 
explain  in  each  case  why  repetition  occurs  on  the  ascer¬ 
tained  number  of  threads  and  picks. 

17.  Take  any  two  suitable  weaves  and  combine  them 
thread  and  thread.  Give  the  draft,  pegging-plan,  and 
gear  calculations  for,  say,  four  different  sets. 


YARN  AND  CLOTH  CALCULATIONS  207 


Advanced  Yarn  and  Cloth  Calculations 

1 .  The  weft  woven  into  a  cloth  is  supposed  to  be  the  sa  me 
throughout.  Upon  testing,  two  distinct  twists  are  found, 
one  averaging  16  turns  per  inch  and  the  other  20  turns 
per  inch.  What  is  the  percentage  of  difference  ? 

2.  The  statement  has  been  made  that  the  counts  and 
areas  of  yarns  vary  in  direct  proportion ;  also  that 
diameter  varies  as  the  square  root  of  the  area,  and  con¬ 
sequently  as  the  square  root  of  the  counts.  Prove  these 
statements  by  diagrammatic  illustrations. 

3.  It  has  been  suggested  that  instead  of  indicating 
the  twist  for  yarns  by  ‘  turns  per  inch,’  the  angle  of  twist 
should  be  stated.  Show  by  diagrams  why  this  would  be 
a  good  method.  Also  state  why  it  has  not  been  adopted. 

4.  Compare  the  English,  French,  and  Metric  systems 
of  calculating  yarns  and  cloths.  Which  do  you  consider 
preferable,  and  why  ?  Give  one  simple  example  stated 
in  each  system.  Give  also  the  ‘  gauge-points  ’  for  con¬ 
version. 

5.  Show  by  diagrams  that  to  make  a  cloth  heavier 
it  must  be  made  thicker  and  that  consequently — 

Diameter  of  yarns  (square  root  of  counts)  must  be 
increased  in  the  required  proportion. 

Number  of  threads  and  picks  per  inch  must  be  de¬ 
creased  in  the  same  proportion. 

6.  Explain  by  extreme  examples  why  the  scientific 
rule  for  changing  the  weight  of  a  piece  is  sometimes 
impracticable,  and  how  an  empirical  rule  may  be  con¬ 
structed  of  considerable  practical  value. 


208 


STUDY  OF  TEXTILE  DESIGN 


7.  Taking  a  2/40’s  botany  yam,  proceed  as  follows  : 

(a)  Calculate  the  threads  and  picks  per  inch  for  ~ — 

4 

twill  in  the  loom. 

(b)  Change  the  cloth  to  one-eighth  lighter  weave  to  be 

twill. 

3 

(c)  Prove  that  your  resultant  cloth  is  of  the  correct 

weight  and  perfect  in  structure. 

8.  Draw  diagrams  illustrating  the  sections  of — 

2 

(a)  Equal  counts  of  warp  and  weft  in  ^  twill 

weave. 

(b)  Unequal  counts  of  warp  and  weft  in  plain  weave, 
warp  straight,  weft  bending. 


INDEX 


Accuracy  in  deduction,  172 
Advantages  and  disadvantages  of 
extra  warp  and  extra  weft,  170 
Analysis  and  synthesis,  i6g 

of  colour  and  weave  effects, 

173 

of  backed  and  double  cloths, 
igo 

Angle  of  curvature,  74 
Attitude  and  quality  of  mind,  5g 
Average  counts,  66,  67 

Backed  cloths,  analysis  of,  igo 

Balance  of  structure,  74-g3 

Balloon,  warping,  35 

Bartrees  for  hand  warping,  33,  34 

Beaming,  32,  37 

Beating-up,  40,  53 

Boxing,  51 

Bradford  warping  mill,  35 
Broken  twills,  no 

Calculations,  counts  of  yarn,  5g-67 
formulae  for  ordinary  warp  and 
weft,  8g 

changing  weights  of  cloths,  go- 
93 

drafting,  156-164 
setting,  72-86 
weight  and  cost,  87 
yarn  and  cloth,  igg-204,  206, 
207 

Capacity  of  Jacquard,  48 
Cashmere  cloth,  83 
Casting  out,  48-50,  161-164 
Centre-shed  witch,  45 
Changing  weight  of  cloths,  go-g3 
Cheeses,  31,  33 
Classification  of  fabrics,  2 
Clearness  of  thought,  170 
Cloth  beam,  41 

calculations,  elementary,  201 
construction,  73-g3 


Colour  and  weave  effects,  analysis 
of,  173 

synthesis  of,  177 
method  of  working  out,  183 
Colour  pattern,  32 
Combination  twills,  106 
Compound  twills,  103 
Comprehensiveness  of  view,  17 
Cops,  31 

Cord  for  healds,  26 
Cost  calculations,  88 
Counting  for  sateen  twills,  116-120 
Counting  yarns,  changing  denomi¬ 
nation,  63 
methods  of,  61 

two-fold  yarns,  resultant  and 
average  counts,  64-67 
Counts  of  yarns,  5g 
Crape  weaves,  108 
Creels,  33 

Definition  of  a  loom,  40 
Denomination  of  yarns,  63 
Designing,  elementary  questions 
on,  204-206 

Designing  of  interfacings  on  point- 
paper,  g4-i2g 

Developments  from  plain  weave, 
95 

Diagonals,  gy 
Diameter  of  yarn,  68,  74 
variation  in,  6g 

to  ascertain  from  known  count 
and  diameter,  71 
Diapers,  sateen,  133 
Dobby,  hand-loom,  41,  43,  45 
power-loom,  50,  51 
Double  cloths,  184 
analysis  of,  igo 
construction  of,  184 
Drafting,  casting  out,  161 

calculation  for  gears,  i56-i5g 
definition  of,  150 


[  209  ] 


14 


210 


INDEX 


Drafting,  orders  to  heald  maker, 
159-161 

principles  of,  146 
Dram  silk,  63 

Drawing-in  and  sleying,  37-39 
Dressing  and  beaming,  36 

Elementary  cloth  calculations,  201 
yarn  calculations,  199 
End-and-end  lease,  33 
Examination  questions,  199-207 
Experience,  conserved,  i 

Felt  industry,  2 
Finishing  lustre  goods,  198 
Flat  views  and  sections,  hints  on 
drawing,  8-11 
Folding  of  yarns,  64-68 
Foot  lease,  33 
Forethought,  19,  99 

Gauze  structure,  6,  7 
Gears,  calculation  for,  156-159 
construction  of,  25-27 
Graphic  illustration  of  yarn  count¬ 
ing,  202 
Going  part,  41 
Gross  of  hanks,  63 

Hand-loom,  parts  of,  40 
Hank,  31 

Healds  or  heddles,  21,  41 
Heald  orders,  25,  159-161 

Interlacings,  simple,  5,  16,  18 
Irregular  sateen  derivatives,  123 

Jacquard  loom,  48-50,  54 

Knitted  fabrics,  3 

Lace  structures,  2 
Lease  reed,  33 
Letting  off,  40,  56 
Loom,  definition  of,  40 
Lustre  goods,  manufacture  of,  195- 
199 

Mails,  23-27 

Manufacture  of  lustre  goods,  195 
Materials  to  employ,  167 
Method  of  analysis  of  backed  and 
double  cloths,  190 
Metric  system  of  yarn  counts,  63 
Mobility  of  mind,  171 
Motive  power,  44 


Motive  and  weave  effects,  124 

Order  sheets,  25,  30,  159-161 
Ordinary  structures,  4,  75-86 
Ordinary  twills,  97-103 

Pegging  plans,  24,  152-157 
Picking  mechanically,  27,  40 
Plain  cloth,  4,  5 

Plain  weave,  developments  from,  95 
Plush  fabric,  6 
Point-paper,  11-18 
Point-paper  design  and  flat  view, 
relationship,  16-18 
Power-loom,  the,  48 
Jacquard,  48 
picking  and  boxing,  51 
beating-up,  53 
taking-up  and  letting-off,  55 
Preparing  the  warp,  30 
Principles  of  drafting,  146 

Reeds,  27-30 

Regular  sateen  derivatives,  121 
Relationships  of  point-paper  design 
and  pegging  plan,  46,  52 
Repetition  of  design  or  figure,  19 
in  loom,  25 

Resultant  counts,  66-67 
Reversing  figures  in  sateen  order, 
140 

Sateen  derivatives,  121 
diapers,  133 
figures,  130 

order,  figures  arranged  in,  134 
order,  reversed  figures  arranged 
in,  140 

rearrangement  of  twills,  124 
stripes  and  checks,  130 
Sateens  and  sateen  twills,  114,  126 
Science  and  art  of  cloth  construc¬ 
tion,  the,  58 

Sets  and  set  calculations,  72,  73 
Set  for  given  weave,  to  find,  75 
Setting  of  cloths  :  summary,  86 
Shafts,  26 

Shed,  lifting  of  shafts  to  form,  21-25 
Shuttle,  27 
race,  30 
Sizing,  36 
Sleying,  29,  37 
Spinning,  197 
Spools,  31 

Stripes  and  checks,  sateen,  130 
Structures,  four  principal,  2 


INDEX 


2H 


Structure  and  correct  use  of  yarns, 
165 

Study  of  textile  fabrics,  i 
Synthesis  of  colour  and  weave 
effects,  177 

Taking-up,  40,  55 

Tappet  loom,  49 

Tare,  the  question  of,  31 

Thinking  in  structure,  94,  133-138, 

193 

Thrum,  38 

Treadle  hand-loom,  43 
Tubes,  31 
Twills,  broken,  no 
combination,  106 
compound,  103 
Twills  and  diagonals,  97 
Twills,  sateen  rearrangement  of, 
124 

Twills,  sateen,  126 

Twist,  influence  of,  100 

Tying  of  double  cloths,  187,  188 

Unit  of  measurement — angle  of 
curvature,  78 
Use  of  point-paper,  11-18 


Variation  in  diameters  of  yarns,  69 

Warp  beam,  31-41 
Warper’s  beam  system,  36 
Warp  or  chain,  12 
Warping '  and  dressing  for  lustre 
goods,  197 
Warping,  32-36 
Warp-rib  structures,  85 
Weaves,  standard,  20 
Weaving,  definition  of,  40 
Weaving  lustre  goods,  195-199 
Weft-rib  structures,  81 
Weft  or  woof,  12 
Weight  and  cost  calculations,  87 
Witch  or  dobby,  bottom-shed,  43,  45 
centre-shed,  45 

Working  out  colour  and  weave 
effects,  183 

Working  out  double  cloths,  184 
Woven  fabrics,  2,  4 

Yarn  calculations,  199-201,  206,  207 
Yarn  numbering  or  counting,  59 
Yarns,  structure  and  correct  use  of, 
165 


THE  END 


BILLING  ANL>  SONS,  LTD.,  PRINTERS,  GUILDFORD 


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